Ingrid U. Schraufstatter

Complement C3a and C5a Induce Different Signal Transduction Cascades in Endothelial Cells

In leukocytes, C3a and C5a cause chemotaxis in a Gi-dependent, pertussis toxin (PT)-sensitive fashion. Because we found that HUVECs and immortalized human dermal microvascular endothelial cells express small numbers of C3aRs and C5aRs, we asked what the function of these receptors was on these cells. Activation of the C3aR caused transient formation of actin stress fibers, which was not PT-sensitive, but depended on rho activation implying coupling to Gα12 or Gα13. Activation of the C5aR caused a delayed and sustained cytoskeletal response, which was blocked by PT, and resulted in cell retraction, increased paracellular permeability, and facilitated eosinophil transmigration. C5a, but not C3a, was chemotactic for human immortalized dermal microvascular endothelial cells. The response to C5a was blocked by inhibitors of phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase, src kinase, and of the epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor (EGFR) as well as by neutralizing Abs against the EGFR and heparin-binding EGF-like factor. Furthermore, immune precipitations showed that the EGFR was phosphorylated following stimulation with C5a. The C5aR in endothelial cells thus uses a signaling cascade–transactivation of the EGFR–that does not exist in leukocytes, while the C3aR couples to a different G protein, presumably Gα12/13.

Autocrine Growth Effect of IL-8 and GROα on a Human Pancreatic Cancer Cell Line, Capan-1

A human pancreatic cancer cell line, Capan-1, secretes the chemokines interleukin-8 (IL-8) and growth-related oncogene alpha (GRO&agr;). Capan-1 cells also express the chemokine receptor 2 (CXCR2), which is a Gi&agr;-protein coupled receptor. Growth of Capan-1 cells was inhibited when anti-IL-8 or anti-GRO&agr; monoclonal antibody was added into the culture medium. Pertussis toxin, which blocks Gi&agr; also demonstrated a growth-inhibitory effect on Capan-1 cells. These results indicated that IL-8 and GRO&agr; act on Capan-1 cells as growth factors in an autocrine manner through CXCR2.

C3a and C5a Are Chemotactic Factors for Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells, Which Cause Prolonged ERK1/2 Phosphorylation

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have a great potential for tissue repair, especially if they can be delivered efficiently to sites of tissue injury. Since complement activation occurs whenever there is tissue damage, the effects of the complement activation products C3a and C5a on MSCs were examined. Both C3a and C5a were chemoattractants for human bone marrow-derived MSCs, which expressed both the C3a receptor (C3aR) and the C5a receptor (C5aR; CD88) on the cell surface. Specific C3aR and C5aR inhibitors blocked the chemotactic response, as did pertussis toxin, indicating that the response was mediated by the known anaphylatoxin receptors in a Gi activation-dependent fashion. While C5a causes strong and prolonged activation of various signaling pathways in many different cell types, the response observed with C3a is generally transient and weak. However, we show herein that in MSCs both C3a and C5a caused prolonged and robust ERK1/2 and Akt phosphorylation. Phospho-ERK1/2 was translocated to the nucleus in both C3a and C5a-stimulated MSCs, which was associated with subsequent phosphorylation of the transcription factor Elk, which could not be detected in other cell types stimulated with C3a. More surprisingly, the C3aR itself was translocated to the nucleus in C3a-stimulated MSCs, especially at low cell densities. Since nuclear activation/translocation of G protein-coupled receptors has been shown to induce long-term effects, this novel observation implies that C3a exerts far-reaching consequences on MSC biology. These results suggest that the anaphylatoxins C3a and C5a present in injured tissues contribute to the recruitment of MSCs and regulation of their behavior.

KSHV-GPCR and CXCR2 transforming capacity and angiogenic responses are mediated through a JAK2-STAT3-dependent pathway

The Kaposi’s sarcoma herpesvirus encodes a G-protein-coupled chemokine receptor termed KSHV-GPCR. Expression of this constitutively active GPCR leads to cell transformation and vascular overgrowth characteristic of Kaposis sarcoma. Previously, we have shown that CXCR2, the closest human homolog, is similarly able to transform cells if continuously stimulated or constitutively activated by amino-acid exchange D138V of the DRY sequence. Here, we demonstrate that STAT3 activation is a prerequisite for transformation in KSHV-GPCR and CXCR2 transfected NIH 3T3 cells. In KSHV-GPCR and D138V transfected cells, STAT-3 is constitutively phosphorylated on Tyr705. In CXCR2 transfected NIH 3T3 cells and human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC), which express the CXCR2 constitutively, STAT3 is phosphorylated upon stimulation with IL-8 (CXCL8). Focus formation in NIH 3T3 cells transfected with the KSHV-GPCR, CXCR2, or the D138V mutant, was blocked by the specific JAK2 inhibitor AG490. Typical functions of the CXCR2 including actin stress fiber formation, haptotaxis, and the angiogenic response in HMEC shown by tube formation in Matrigel were blocked by AG490. These data suggest that the transforming capacity and migratory responses that are involved in tumor development, metastasis, and angiogenesis in KSHV or CXCR2-expressing cells is at least partially mediated through a JAK2-STAT3 dependent pathway.

Structure of Complement C6 Suggests a Mechanism for Initiation and Unidirectional, Sequential Assembly of Membrane Attack Complex (MAC).

Background: The membrane attack complex (MAC) is an ancient component of immune defense that assembles lytic pores in pathogen membranes. Results: Structural comparisons between C6 and C8 reveal the available conformations of MAC proteins. Conclusion: We propose a critical role for the “auxiliary” domains in driving and regulating assembly. Significance: The model rationalizes the sequential and unidirectional nature of assembly. The complement membrane attack complex (MAC) is formed by the sequential assembly of C5b with four homologous proteins as follows: one copy each of C6, C7, and C8 and 12–14 copies of C9. Together these form a lytic pore in bacterial membranes. C6 through C9 comprise a MAC-perforin domain flanked by 4–9 “auxiliary” domains. Here, we report the crystal structure of C6, the first and longest of the pore proteins to be recruited by C5b. Comparisons with the structures of the C8αβγ heterodimer and perforin show that the central domain of C6 adopts a “closed” (perforin-like) state that is distinct from the “open” conformations in C8. We further show that C6, C8α, and C8β contain three homologous subdomains (“upper,” “lower,” and “regulatory”) related by rotations about two hinge points. In C6, the regulatory segment includes four auxiliary domains that stabilize the closed conformation, inhibiting release of membrane-inserting elements. In C8β, rotation of the regulatory segment is linked to an opening of the central β-sheet of its clockwise partner, C8α. Based on these observations, we propose a model for initiation and unidirectional propagation of the MAC in which the auxiliary domains play key roles: in the assembly of the C5b-8 initiation complex; in driving and regulating the opening of the β-sheet of the MAC-performin domain of each new recruit as it adds to the growing pore; and in stabilizing the final pore. Our model of the assembled pore resembles those of the cholesterol-dependent cytolysins but is distinct from that recently proposed for perforin.

IL-8-Mediated Cell Migration in Endothelial Cells Depends on Cathepsin B Activity and Transactivation of the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor

Microvascular endothelial cells (HMECs) express both the CXCR1 and the CXCR2, but cell migration is almost entirely mediated by the CXCR2. Similarly, NIH 3T3 cells transfected with the CXCR2 migrated toward IL-8, whereas CXCR1-transfected cells failed to do so. This situation differs from that seen in leukocytes, where chemotaxis is primarily a function of the CXCR1. To define signal transduction pathways that explain this difference in behavior, various inhibitors were used to block cell migration. Apart from inhibitors of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, which blocked migration in all cases, inhibition of the epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor blocked IL-8-mediated cell migration in HMECs and in CXCR2-transfected NIH 3T3 cells, but not in RBL2H3 cells, which do not express an EGFR. Blocking Abs against the EGFR or against heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor similarly blocked IL-8-mediated cell migration and in vitro tubulogenesis in HMECs. Furthermore, inhibition of the EGFR also attenuated focus formation in NIH 3T3 expressing the CXCR2. Immunoprecipitations of the EGFR in HMECs and in NIH 3T3 cells expressing the CXCR2 confirmed that the EGFR was phosphorylated following stimulation with IL-8. However, in contrast to previous reports, e.g., for the thrombin receptor, inhibition of matrix metalloproteases blocked IL-8-mediated cell migration only partially, whereas it was ablated by inhibition of cathepsin B. These results indicate that IL-8-induced transactivation of the EGFR is mediated by the CXCR2 and involves cathepsin B, and that this pathway is important for the migratory and tumorigenic effects of IL-8.

Evidence that cathelicidin peptide LL‐37 may act as a functional ligand for CXCR2 on human neutrophils

LL‐37, derived from human cathelicidin, stimulates immune responses in neutrophils. Although FPR2 and P2X7 were proposed as LL‐37 receptors, we have shown that among 21 neutrophil receptors only CXCR2 was down‐regulated by LL‐37. LL‐37 functions similarly to CXCR2‐specific chemokines CXCL1 and CXCL7 in terms of receptor down‐regulation and intracellular calcium mobilization on freshly isolated neutrophils. Neutrophils pretreated with CXCL8, a chemokine that binds both CXCR1/2, completely blocked the calcium mobilization in response to LL‐37, while LL‐37 also partially inhibited 125I‐CXCL8 binding to neutrophils. SB225002, a selective CXCR2 antagonist, blocked LL‐37‐induced calcium mobilization and migration of neutrophils. LL‐37 stimulates calcium mobilization in CXCR2‐transfected HEK293 cells, CXCR2+ THP‐1 cells and monocytes, but not in CXCR1‐transfected HEK293 cells. WKYMVm peptide (ligand for FPR2) does not block LL‐37‐stimulated calcium flux in either THP‐1 (FPR2−) or monocytes (FPR2high), further confirming the specificity of LL‐37 for CXCR2 and not FPR2. Among all ligands tested (ATP, BzATP, WKYMVm, CXCL1, and LL‐37), only LL‐37 stimulated migration of monocytes (CXCR2+ and FPR2+) and migration was inhibited by the CXCR2 inhibitor SB225002. Moreover, CXCR2 but not CXCR1 was internalized in LL‐37‐treated neutrophils. Thus, our data provide evidence that LL‐37 may act as a functional ligand for CXCR2 on human neutrophils.

Regulation of CXCR4-Mediated Nuclear Translocation of Extracellular Signal-Related Kinases 1 and 2

Activation of the chemokine receptor CXCR4 by its agonist stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF-1) has been associated with cell migration and proliferation in many cell types, but the intracellular signaling cascades are incompletely defined. Here we show that CXCR4-dependent extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) phosphorylation was mediated through the Ras/Raf pathway, as demonstrated with a dominant-negative Ras mutant and pharmacological inhibitors. The Src inhibitor 4-amino-5-methylphenyl-7-(t-butyl)pyrazolo[3,4-d] pyrimidine (PP1) and the Rho-kinase (ROCK) inhibitor N-(4-pyridyl)-4-(1-aminoethyl)cyclohexanecarboxamide dihydrochloride (Y27632) also attenuated SDF-1-induced ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Involvement of Src could furthermore be demonstrated by Src phosphorylation and by the shortened ERK1/2 phosphorylation in SYF cells, which are Src/Yes/Fyn-deficient compared with Src-reconstituted Src++ cells. Membrane translocation of RhoA could be detected similarly. A large portion of the SDF-1-mediated ERK phosphorylation was detected in the nucleus, as shown by Western blotting and confocal microscopy, and resulted in the phosphorylation of the transcription factor Elk. It is interesting that the nuclear accumulation of ERK1/2 and Elk phosphorylation was completely blocked by dominant-negative Rho, Y27632, PP1, and latrunculin B, indicating that the Rho/ROCK pathway, Src kinase, and the actin cytoskeleton were required in this process. In accordance, neither nuclear ERK phosphorylation nor Elk phosphorylation were observed in SYF cells stimulated with SDF-1 but were reconstituted in Src++ cells. In summary, these results demonstrate that Src, Rho/ROCK, and an intact cytoskeleton contribute to overall ERK1/2 activation in SDF-1-stimulated cells and are indispensable for nuclear translocation of ERK1/2 and activation of transcription factors.

Adhesive interactions between human neural stem cells and inflamed human vascular endothelium are mediated by integrins.

Understanding the mechanisms by which stem cells home precisely to regions of injury or degeneration is of importance to both basic and applied regenerative medicine. Optimizing regenerative processes may depend on identifying the range of molecules that subserve stem cell trafficking. The “rolling” of extravasating cells on endothelium under conditions of physiological flow is the first essential step in the homing cascade and determines cell adhesion and transmigration. Using a laminar flow chamber to simulate physiological shear stress, we explored an aspect of this process by using human neural stem cells (hNSCs). We observed that the interactions between hNSCs and tumor necrosis factor‐α (TNF‐α)‐stimulated human endothelium (simulating an inflamed milieu) are mediated by a subclass of integrins—α2, α6, and β1, but not α4, αv, or the chemokine‐mediated pathway CXCR4‐stromal cell‐derived factor‐1α—suggesting not only that the mechanisms mediating hNSC homing via the vasculature differ from the mechanisms mediating homing through parenchyma, but also that each step invokes a distinct pathway mediating a specialized function in the hNSC homing cascade. (TNF‐α stimulation also upregulates vascular cell adhesion molecule‐1 expression on the hNSCs themselves and increases NSC‐endothelial interactions.) The selective use of integrin subgroups to mediate homing of cells of neuroectodermal origin may also be used to ensure that cells within the systemic circulation are delivered to the pathological region of a given organ to the exclusion of other, perhaps undesired, organs.

The chemokine CCL18 causes maturation of cultured monocytes to macrophages in the M2 spectrum

The observation that human monocytes cultured in the presence of the chemokine CCL18 showed increased survival, led us to profile cytokine expression in CCL18‐stimulated versus control cultures. CCL18 caused significantly increased expression of chemokines (CXCL8, CCL2, CCL3 and CCL22), interleukin‐10 (IL‐10) and platelet‐derived growth factor, but no up‐regulation of M1 cytokines IL‐1β or IL‐12. CCL18‐stimulated monocytes matured into cells with morphological resemblance to IL‐4‐stimulated macrophages, and expressed the monocyte marker CD14 as well the M2 macrophage markers CD206 and 15‐lipoxygenase, but no mature dendritic cell markers (CD80, CD83 or CD86). Functionally, CCL18‐stimulated macrophages showed a high capacity for unspecific phagocytosis and for pinocytosis, which was not associated with an oxidative burst. These findings suggest that CCL18‐activated macrophages stand at the cross‐roads between inflammation and its resolution. The chemokines that are produced in response to CCL18 are angiogenic and attract various leucocyte populations, which sustain inflammation. However, the capacity of these cells to remove cellular debris without causing oxidative damage and the production of the anti‐inflammatory IL‐10 will initiate termination of the inflammatory response. In summary, CCL18 induces an M2 spectrum macrophage phenotype in the absence of IL‐4.