Iraida Sharina

Hydrogen sulfide and nitric oxide are mutually dependent in the regulation of angiogenesis and endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a unique gasotransmitter, with regulatory roles in the cardiovascular, nervous, and immune systems. Some of the vascular actions of H2S (stimulation of angiogenesis, relaxation of vascular smooth muscle) resemble those of nitric oxide (NO). Although it was generally assumed that H2S and NO exert their effects via separate pathways, the results of the current study show that H2S and NO are mutually required to elicit angiogenesis and vasodilatation. Exposure of endothelial cells to H2S increases intracellular cyclic guanosine 5′-monophosphate (cGMP) in a NO-dependent manner, and activated protein kinase G (PKG) and its downstream effector, the vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP). Inhibition of endothelial isoform of NO synthase (eNOS) or PKG-I abolishes the H2S-stimulated angiogenic response, and attenuated H2S-stimulated vasorelaxation, demonstrating the requirement of NO in vascular H2S signaling. Conversely, silencing of the H2S-producing enzyme cystathionine-γ-lyase abolishes NO-stimulated cGMP accumulation and angiogenesis and attenuates the acetylcholine-induced vasorelaxation, indicating a partial requirement of H2S in the vascular activity of NO. The actions of H2S and NO converge at cGMP; though H2S does not directly activate soluble guanylyl cyclase, it maintains a tonic inhibitory effect on PDE5, thereby delaying the degradation of cGMP. H2S also activates PI3K/Akt, and increases eNOS phosphorylation at its activating site S1177. The cooperative action of the two gasotransmitters on increasing and maintaining intracellular cGMP is essential for PKG activation and angiogenesis and vasorelaxation. H2S-induced wound healing and microvessel growth in matrigel plugs is suppressed by pharmacological inhibition or genetic ablation of eNOS. Thus, NO and H2S are mutually required for the physiological control of vascular function.

Impact of overexpression of the reduced folate carrier (RFC1), an anion exchanger, on concentrative transport in murine L1210 leukemia cells.

Transport of reduced folates in murine leukemia cells is mediated by the bidirectional reduced folate carrier (RFC1) and independent unidirectional exit pumps. RFC1 has been proposed to be intrinsically equilibrating, generating transmembrane gradients by exchange with inorganic and organic anions. This paper defines the role of high level carrier expression, through transfection with RFC1 cDNA, on concentrative transport of the folate analog, methotrexate (MTX) in murine L1210 leukemia cells. RFC1 was expressed in the MTXrA line, which lacks a functional endogenous carrier to obtain the MTXrA-R16 clonal derivative. Influx was increased ∼9-fold in MTXrA-R16 cells without a change in K m . The efflux rate constant was increased by a factor of 5.1 relative to L1210 cells, and this resulted in only a 2.1-fold increase in the steady-state level of free intracellular MTX, [MTX] i , when [MTX] e was 1 μm. The concentrative advantage for RFC1 (the ratio of [MTX] i in MTXrA-R16 to L1210 cells) increased from 1.8 at 0.1 μm MTX to 3.8 at an [MTX] e level of 30 μm. Augmented transport in MTXrA-R16 cells was accompanied by a 2-fold increase in accumulation of MTX polyglutamate derivatives and a ∼50% decrease in the EC50 for 5-formyltetrahydrofolate and folic acid and the MTX IC50 relative to L1210 cells. These alterations paralleled changes in [MTX] i and not the much larger change in influx at low [MTX] e levels, consistent with the critical role that free intracellular folates and drug play in meeting cellular needs for folates and as a determinant of antifolate activity, respectively. The data indicate that RFC1 produces a large and near symmetrical increase in the bidirectional fluxes of MTX resulting in only a small increase in the transmembrane chemical gradient at low extracellular folate levels. Hence, increased expression of RFC1, alone, may not be an efficient adaptive response to folate deprivation, and other factors may come into play to account for the marked increases in concentrative folate transport which occur when cells are subjected to low folate-selective pressure.

A constitutively activated mutant of human soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC): Implication for the mechanism of sGC activation

Heterodimeric αβ soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) is a recognized receptor for nitric oxide (NO) and mediates many of its physiological functions. Although it has been clear that the heme moiety coordinated by His-105 of the β subunit is crucial for mediating the activation of the enzyme by NO, it is not understood whether the heme moiety plays any role in the function of the enzyme in the absence of NO. Here we analyze the effects of biochemical and genetic removal of heme and its reconstitution on the activity of the enzyme. Detergent-induced loss of heme from the wild-type αβ enzyme resulted in several-fold activation of the enzyme. This activation was inhibited after hemin reconstitution. A heme-deficient mutant αβCys-105 with Cys substituted for His-105 was constitutively active with specific activity approaching the activity of the wild-type enzyme activated by NO. However, reconstitution of mutant enzyme with heme and/or DTT treatment significantly inhibited the enzyme. Mutant enzyme reconstituted with ferrous heme was activated by NO and CO alone and showed additive effects between gaseous effectors and the allosteric activator 5-cyclopropyl-2-[1-(2-fluoro-benzyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-3-yl]-pyrimidin-4-ylamine. We propose that the heme moiety through its coordination with His-105 of the β subunit acts as an endogenous inhibitor of sGC. Disruption of the heme-coordinating bond induced by binding of NO releases the restrictions imposed by this bond and allows the formation of an optimally organized catalytic center in the heterodimer.

A Short History of cGMP, Guanylyl Cyclases, and cGMP-Dependent Protein Kinases

Here, we review the early studies on cGMP, guanylyl cyclases, and cGMP-dependent protein kinases to facilitate understanding of development of this exciting but complex field of research encompassing pharmacology, biochemistry, physiology, and molecular biology of these important regulatory molecules.

Dynamic ligand exchange in soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC): implications for sGC regulation and desensitization.

Background: The enzyme soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) converts the NO signal into cGMP. Results: Stoichiometric NO forms an unstable sGC-NO complex, which is stabilized by extra NO, GTP, or substitution of βHis-107. Conclusion: Exchange of the proximal heme ligand contributes to sGC activation and desensitization. Significance: Understanding the dynamics of sGC/NO interaction and its functional consequences is necessary to understand the process of NO/cGMP signaling. Accumulating evidence indicates that the functional properties of soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) are affected not only by the binding of NO but also by the NO:sGC ratio and a number of cellular factors, including GTP. In this study, we monitored the time-resolved transformations of sGC and sGC-NO complexes generated with stoichiometric or excess NO in the presence and absence of GTP. We demonstrate that the initial five-coordinate sGC-NO complex is highly activated by stoichiometric NO but is unstable and transforms into a five-coordinate sGC-2 state. This sGC-2 rebinds NO to form a low activity sGC-NO complex. The stability of the initial complex is greatly enhanced by GTP binding, binding of an additional NO molecule, or substitution of βHis-107. We propose that the transient nature of the sGC-NO complex, the formation of a desensitized sGC-2 state, and its transformation into a low activity sGC-NO adduct require βHis-107. We conclude that conformational changes leading to sGC desensitization may be prevented by GTP binding to the catalytic site or by binding of an additional NO molecule to the proximal side of the heme. The implications of these observations for cellular NO/cGMP signaling and the process of rapid desensitization of sGC are discussed in the context of the proposed model of sGC/NO interactions and dynamic transformations.

α1 Soluble Guanylyl Cyclase (sGC) Splice Forms as Potential Regulators of Human sGC Activity

Soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC), a key protein in the NO/cGMP signaling pathway, is an obligatory heterodimeric protein composed of one α- and one β-subunit. The α1/β1 sGC heterodimer is the predominant form expressed in various tissues and is regarded as the major isoform mediating NO-dependent effects such as vasodilation. We have identified three new α1 sGC protein variants generated by alternative splicing. The 363 residue N1-α1 sGC splice variant contains the regulatory domain, but lacks the catalytic domain. The shorter N2-α1 sGC maintains 126 N-terminal residues and gains an additional 17 unique residues. The C-α1 sGC variant lacks 240 N-terminal amino acids, but maintains a part of the regulatory domain and the entire catalytic domain. Q-PCR of N1-α1, N2-α1 sGC mRNA levels together with RT-PCR analysis for C-α1 sGC demonstrated that the expression of the α1 sGC splice forms vary in different human tissues indicative of tissue-specific regulation. Functional analysis of the N1-α1 sGC demonstrated that this protein has a dominant-negative effect on the activity of sGC when coexpressed with the α1/β1 heterodimer. The C-α1 sGC variant heterodimerizes with the β1 subunit and produces a fully functional NO- and BAY41-2272-sensitive enzyme. We also found that despite identical susceptibility to inhibition by ODQ, intracellular levels of the 54-kDa C-α1 band did not change in response to ODQ treatments, while the level of 83 kDa α1 band was significantly affected by ODQ. These studies suggest that modulation of the level and diversity of splice forms may represent novel mechanisms modulating the function of sGC in different human tissues.

Dynamic interplay between nitration and phosphorylation of tubulin cofactor B in the control of microtubule dynamics.

Tubulin cofactor B (TCoB) plays an important role in microtubule dynamics by facilitating the dimerization of α- and β-tubulin. Recent evidence suggests that p21-activated kinase 1 (Pak1), a major signaling nodule in eukaryotic cells, phosphorylates TCoB on Ser-65 and Ser-128 and plays an essential role in microtubule regrowth. However, to date, no upstream signaling molecules have been identified to antagonize the functions of TCoB, which might help in maintaining the equilibrium of microtubules. Here, we discovered that TCoB is efficiently nitrated, mainly on Tyr-64 and Tyr-98, and nitrated-TCoB attenuates the synthesis of new microtubules. In addition, we found that nitration of TCoB antagonizes signaling-dependent phosphorylation of TCoB, whereas optimal nitration of TCoB requires the presence of functional Pak1 phosphorylation sites, thus providing a feedback mechanism to regulate phosphorylation-dependent MT regrowth. Together these findings identified TCoB as the third cytoskeleton protein to be nitrated and suggest a previously undescribed mechanism, whereby growth factor signaling may coordinately integrate nitric oxide signaling in the regulation of microtubule dynamics.

CCAAT-binding factor regulates expression of the β1 subunit of soluble guanylyl cyclase gene in the BE2 human neuroblastoma cell line

Soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) is a cytosolic enzyme producing the intracellular messenger cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) on activation with nitric oxide (NO). sGC is an obligatory heterodimer composed of α and β subunits. We investigated human β1 sGC transcriptional regulation in BE2 human neuroblastoma cells. The 5′ upstream region of the β1 sGC gene was isolated and analyzed for promoter activity by using luciferase reporter constructs. The transcriptional start site of the β1 sGC gene in BE2 cells was identified. The functional significance of consensus transcriptional factor binding sites proximal to the transcriptional start site was investigated by site deletions in the 800-bp promoter fragment. The elimination of CCAAT-binding factor (CBF) and growth factor independence 1 (GFI1) binding cores significantly diminished whereas deletion of the NF1 core elevated the transcription. Electrophoretic mobility-shift assay (EMSA) and Western analysis of proteins bound to biotinated EMSA probes confirmed the interaction of GFI1, CBF, and NF1 factors with the β1 sGC promoter. Treatment of BE2 cells with genistein, known to inhibit the CBF binding to DNA, significantly reduced protein levels of β1 sGC by inhibiting transcription. In summary, our study represents an analysis of the human β1 sGC promoter regulation in human neuroblastoma BE2 cells and identifies CBF as a critically important factor in β1 sGC expression.

Regulation of soluble guanylyl cyclase redox state by hydrogen sulfide

Soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) is a receptor for nitric oxide (NO). Binding of NO to ferrous (Fe(2+)) heme increases its catalytic activity, leading to the production of cGMP from GTP. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a signaling molecule that exerts both direct and indirect anti-oxidant effects. In the present, study we aimed to determine whether H2S could regulate sGC redox state and affect its responsiveness to NO-releasing agents and sGC activators. Using cultured rat aortic smooth muscle cells, we observed that treatment with H2S augmented the response to the NO donor DEA/NO, while attenuating the response to the heme-independent activator BAY58-2667 that targets oxidized sGC. Similarly, overexpression of H2S-synthesizing enzyme cystathionine-γ lyase reduced the ability of BAY58-2667 to promote cGMP accumulation. In experiments with phenylephrine-constricted mouse aortic rings, treatment with rotenone (a compound that increases ROS production), caused a rightward shift of the DEA/NO concentration-response curve, an effect partially restored by H2S. When rings were pre-treated with H2S, the concentration-response curve to BAY 58-2667 shifted to the right. Using purified recombinant human sGC, we observed that treatment with H2S converted ferric to ferrous sGC enhancing NO-donor-stimulated sGC activity and reducing BAY 58-2667-triggered cGMP formation. The present study identified an additional mechanism of cross-talk between the NO and H2S pathways at the level of redox regulation of sGC. Our results provide evidence that H2S reduces sGC heme Fe, thus, facilitating NO-mediated cellular signaling events.

Cobinamides Are Novel Coactivators of Nitric Oxide Receptor That Target Soluble Guanylyl Cyclase Catalytic Domain

Soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC), a ubiquitously expressed heme-containing receptor for nitric oxide (NO), is a key mediator of NO-dependent processes. In addition to NO, a number of synthetic compounds that target the heme-binding region of sGC and activate it in a NO-independent fashion have been described. We report here that dicyanocobinamide (CN2-Cbi), a naturally occurring intermediate of vitamin B12 synthesis, acts as a sGC coactivator both in vitro and in intact cells. Heme depletion or heme oxidation does not affect CN2-Cbi-dependent activation. Deletion mutagenesis demonstrates that CN2-Cbi targets a new regulatory site and functions though a novel mechanism of sGC activation. Unlike all known sGC regulators that target the N-terminal regulatory regions, CN2-Cbi directly targets the catalytic domain of sGC, resembling the effect of forskolin on adenylyl cyclases. CN2-Cbi synergistically enhances sGC activation by NO-independent regulators 3-(4-amino-5-cyclopropylpyrimidine-2-yl)-1-(2-fluorobenzyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine (BAY41-2272), 4-[((4-carboxybutyl){2-[(4-phenethylbenzyl)oxy]phenethyl}amino) methyl [benzoic]-acid (cinaciguat or BAY58-2667), and 5-chloro-2-(5-chloro-thiophene-2-sulfonylamino-N-(4-(morpholine-4-sulfonyl)-phenyl)-benzamide sodium salt (ataciguat or HMR-1766). BAY41-2272 and CN2-Cbi act reciprocally by decreasing the EC50 values. CN2-Cbi increases intracellular cGMP levels and displays vasorelaxing activity in phenylephrine-constricted rat aortic rings in an endothelium-independent manner. Both effects are synergistically potentiated by BAY41-2272. These studies uncover a new mode of sGC regulation and provide a new tool for understanding the mechanism of sGC activation and function. CN2-Cbi also offers new possibilities for its therapeutic applications in augmenting the effect of other sGC-targeting drugs.