Irina Iakovleva

A Generic Method for Design of Oligomer-Specific Antibodies

Antibodies that preferentially and specifically target pathological oligomeric protein and peptide assemblies, as opposed to their monomeric and amyloid counterparts, provide therapeutic and diagnostic opportunities for protein misfolding diseases. Unfortunately, the molecular properties associated with oligomer-specific antibodies are not well understood, and this limits targeted design and development. We present here a generic method that enables the design and optimisation of oligomer-specific antibodies. The method takes a two-step approach where discrimination between oligomers and fibrils is first accomplished through identification of cryptic epitopes exclusively buried within the structure of the fibrillar form. The second step discriminates between monomers and oligomers based on differences in avidity. We show here that a simple divalent mode of interaction, as within e.g. the IgG isotype, can increase the binding strength of the antibody up to 1500 times compared to its monovalent counterpart. We expose how the ability to bind oligomers is affected by the monovalent affinity and the turnover rate of the binding and, importantly, also how oligomer specificity is only valid within a specific concentration range. We provide an example of the method by creating and characterising a spectrum of different monoclonal antibodies against both the Aβ peptide and α-synuclein that are associated with Alzheimers and Parkinsons diseases, respectively. The approach is however generic, does not require identification of oligomer-specific architectures, and is, in essence, applicable to all polypeptides that form oligomeric and fibrillar assemblies.

Tetrabromobisphenol A Is an Efficient Stabilizer of the Transthyretin Tetramer

Amyloid formation of the human plasma protein transthyretin (TTR) is associated with several human disorders, including familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy (FAP) and senile systemic amyloidosis. Dissociation of TTR’s native tetrameric assembly is the rate-limiting step in the conversion into amyloid, and this feature presents an avenue for intervention because binding of an appropriate ligand to the thyroxin hormone binding sites of TTR stabilizes the native tetrameric assembly and impairs conversion into amyloid. The desired features for an effective TTR stabilizer include high affinity for TTR, high selectivity in the presence of other proteins, no adverse side effects at the effective concentrations, and a long half-life in the body. In this study we show that the commonly used flame retardant tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) efficiently stabilizes the tetrameric structure of TTR. The X-ray crystal structure shows TBBPA binding in the thyroxine binding pocket with bromines occupying two of the three halogen binding sites. Interestingly, TBBPA binds TTR with an extremely high selectivity in human plasma, and the effect is equal to the recently approved drug tafamidis and better than diflunisal, both of which have shown therapeutic effects against FAP. TBBPA consequently present an interesting scaffold for drug design. Its absorption, metabolism, and potential side-effects are discussed.

The flavonoid luteolin, but not luteolin-7-O-glucoside, prevents a transthyretin mediated toxic response.

Transthyretin (TTR) is a homotetrameric plasma protein with amyloidogenic properties that has been linked to the development of familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy (FAP), familial amyloidotic cardiomyopathy, and senile systemic amyloidosis. The in vivo role of TTR is associated with transport of thyroxine hormone T4 and retinol-binding protein. Loss of the tetrameric integrity of TTR is a rate-limiting step in the process of TTR amyloid formation, and ligands with the ability to bind within the thyroxin binding site (TBS) can stabilize the tetramer, a feature that is currently used as a therapeutic approach for FAP. Several different flavonoids have recently been identified that impair amyloid formation. The flavonoid luteolin shows therapeutic potential with low incidence of unwanted side effects. In this work, we show that luteolin effectively attenuates the cytotoxic response to TTR in cultured neuronal cells and rescues the phenotype of a Drosophila melanogaster model of FAP. The plant-derived luteolin analogue cynaroside has a glucoside group in position 7 of the flavone A-ring and as opposed to luteolin is unable to stabilize TTR tetramers and thus prevents a cytotoxic effect. We generated high-resolution crystal-structures of both TTR wild type and the amyloidogenic mutant V30M in complex with luteolin. The results show that the A-ring of luteolin, in contrast to what was previously suggested, is buried within the TBS, consequently explaining the lack of activity from cynaroside. The flavonoids represent an interesting group of drug candidates for TTR amyloidosis. The present investigation shows the potential of luteolin as a stabilizer of TTR in vivo. We also show an alternative orientation of luteolin within the TBS which could represent a general mode of binding of flavonoids to TTR and is of importance concerning the future design of tetramer stabilizing drugs.

Scanning electron microscopy as a tool for evaluating morphology of amyloid structures formed on surface plasmon resonance chips

We demonstrate the use of Scanning Electron microscopy (SEM) in combination with Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) to probe and verify the formation of amyloid and its morphology on an SPR chip. SPR is a technique that measures changes in the immobilized weight on the chip surface and is frequently used to probe the formation and biophysical properties of amyloid structures. In this context it is of interest to also monitor the morphology of the formed structures. The SPR chip surface is made of a layer of gold, which represent a suitable material for direct analysis of the surface using SEM. The standard SPR chip used here (CM5-chip, GE Healthcare, Uppsala, Sweden) can easily be disassembled and directly analyzed by SEM. In order to verify the formation of amyloid fibrils in our experimental conditions we analyzed also in-solution produced structures by using Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). For further details and experimental findings, please refer to the article published in Journal of Molecular Biology, (Brännström K. et al., 2018) [1].

Modifications of the 7-Hydroxyl Group of the Transthyretin Ligand Luteolin Provide Mechanistic Insights into Its Binding Properties and High Plasma Specificity.

Amyloid formation of the plasma protein transthyretin (TTR) has been linked to familial amyloid polyneuropathy and senile systemic amyloidosis. Binding of ligands within its natural hormone binding site can stabilize the tetrameric structure and impair amyloid formation. We have recently shown that the flavonoid luteolin stabilizes TTR in human plasma with a very high selectivity. Luteolin, however, is inactivated in vivo via glucuronidation for which the preferred site is the hydroxy group at position 7 on its aromatic A-ring. We have evaluated the properties of two luteolin variants in which the 7-hydroxy group has been exchanged for a chlorine (7-Cl-Lut) or a methoxy group (7-MeO-Lut). Using an in vitro model, based on human liver microsomes, we verified that these modifications increase the persistence of the drug. Crystal structure determinations show that 7-Cl-Lut binds similarly to luteolin. The larger MeO substituent cannot be accommodated within the same space as the chlorine or hydroxy group and as a result 7-MeO-Lut binds in the opposite direction with the methoxy group in position 7 facing the solvent. Both 7-Cl-Lut and 7-MeO-Lut qualify as high-affinity binders, but in contrast to luteolin, they display a highly non-specific binding to other plasma components. The binding of the two conformations and the key-interactions to TTR are discussed in detail. Taken together, these results show a proof-of-concept that the persistence of luteolin towards enzymatic modification can be increased. We reveal two alternative high-affinity binding modes of luteolin to TTR and that modification in position 7 is restricted only to small substituents if the original orientation of luteolin should be preserved. In addition, the present work provides a general and convenient method to evaluate the efficacy of TTR-stabilizing drugs under conditions similar to an in vivo environment.

Transthyretin Interferes with Aβ Amyloid Formation by Redirecting Oligomeric Nuclei into Non-Amyloid Aggregates

The pathological Aβ aggregates associated with Alzheimers disease follow a nucleation-dependent path of formation. A nucleus represents an oligomeric assembly of Aβ peptides that acts as a template for subsequent incorporation of monomers to form a fibrillar structure. Nuclei can form de novo or via surface-catalyzed secondary nucleation, and the combined rates of elongation and nucleation control the overall rate of fibril formation. Transthyretin (TTR) obstructs Aβ fibril formation in favor of alternative non-fibrillar assemblies, but the mechanism behind this activity is not fully understood. This study shows that TTR does not significantly disturb fibril elongation; rather, it effectively interferes with the formation of oligomeric nuclei. We demonstrate that this interference can be modulated by altering the relative contribution of elongation and nucleation, and we show how TTRs effects can range from being essentially ineffective to almost complete inhibition of fibril formation without changing the concentration of TTR or monomeric Aβ.

The Properties of Amyloid-β Fibrils Are Determined by their Path of Formation

Fibril formation of the amyloid-β peptide (Aβ) follows a nucleation-dependent polymerization process and is associated with Alzheimers disease. Several different lengths of Aβ are observed in vivo, but Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42 are the dominant forms. The fibril architectures of Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42 differ and Aβ1-42 assemblies are generally considered more pathogenic. We show here that monomeric Aβ1-42 can be cross-templated and incorporated into the ends of Aβ1-40 fibrils, while incorporation of Aβ1-40 monomers into Aβ1-42 fibrils is very poor. We also show that via cross-templating incorporated Aβ monomers acquire the properties of the parental fibrils. The suppressed ability of Aβ1-40 to incorporate into the ends of Aβ1-42 fibrils and the capacity of Aβ1-42 monomers to adopt the properties of Aβ1-40 fibrils may thus represent two mechanisms reducing the total load of fibrils having the intrinsic, and possibly pathogenic, features of Aβ1-42 fibrils in vivo. We also show that the transfer of fibrillar properties is restricted to fibril-end templating and does not apply to cross-nucleation via the recently described path of surface-catalyzed secondary nucleation, which instead generates similar structures to those acquired via de novo primary nucleation in the absence of catalyzing seeds. Taken together these results uncover an intrinsic barrier that prevents Aβ1-40 from adopting the fibrillar properties of Aβ1-42 and exposes that the transfer of properties between amyloid-β fibrils are determined by their path of formation.

Interspecies Variation Between Fish and Human Transthyretins in Their Binding of Thyroid-Disrupting Chemicals.

Thyroid-disrupting chemicals (TDCs) are xenobiotics that can interfere with the endocrine system and cause adverse effects in organisms and their offspring. TDCs affect both the thyroid gland and regulatory enzymes associated with thyroid hormone homeostasis. Transthyretin (TTR) is found in the serum and cerebrospinal fluid of vertebrates, where it transports thyroid hormones. Here, we explored the interspecies variation in TDC binding to human and fish TTR (exemplified by Gilthead seabream ( Sparus aurata)). The in vitro binding experiments showed that TDCs bind with equal or weaker affinity to seabream TTR than to the human TTR, in particular, the polar TDCs (>500-fold lower affinity). Crystal structures of the seabream TTR-TDC complexes revealed that all TDCs bound at the thyroid binding sites. However, amino acid substitution of Ser117 in human TTR to Thr117 in seabream prevented polar TDCs from binding deep in the hormone binding cavity, which explains their low affinity to seabream TTR. Molecular dynamics and in silico alanine scanning simulation also suggested that the protein backbone of seabream TTR is more rigid than the human one and that Thr117 provides fewer electrostatic contributions than Ser117 to ligand binding. This provides an explanation for the weaker affinities of the ligands that rely on electrostatic interactions with Thr117. The lower affinities of TDCs to fish TTR, in particular the polar ones, could potentially lead to milder thyroid-related effects in fish.