Isaac Gállego

Efficient Self-Assembly in Water of Long Noncovalent Polymers by Nucleobase Analogues

Molecular self-assembly is widely appreciated to result from a delicate balance between several noncovalent interactions and solvation effects. However, current design approaches for achieving self-assembly in water with small, synthetic molecules do not consider all aspects of the hydrophobic effect, in particular the requirement of surface areas greater than 1 nm(2) for an appreciable free energy of hydration. With the concept of a minimum hydrophobic surface area in mind, we designed a system that achieves highly cooperative self-assembly in water. Two weakly interacting low-molecular-weight monomers (cyanuric acid and a modified triaminopyrimidine) are shown to form extremely long supramolecular polymer assemblies that retain water solubility. The complete absence of intermediate assemblies means that the observed equilibrium is between free monomers and supramolecular assemblies. These observations are in excellent agreement with literature values for the free energy of nucleic acid base interactions as well as the calculated free energy penalty for the exposure of hydrophobic structures in water. The results of our study have implications for the design of new self-assembling structures and hydrogel-forming molecules and may provide insights into the origin of the first RNA-like polymers.

Spontaneous Prebiotic Formation of a β-Ribofuranoside That Self-Assembles with a Complementary Heterocycle

The RNA World hypothesis is central to many current theories regarding the origin and early evolution of life. However, the formation of RNA by plausible prebiotic reactions remains problematic. Formidable challenges include glycosidic bond formation between ribose and the canonical nucleobases, as well as the inability of nucleosides to mutually select their pairing partners from a complex mixture of other molecules prior to polymerization. Here we report a one-pot model prebiotic reaction between a pyrimidine nucleobase (2,4,6-triaminopyrimidine, TAP) and ribose, which produces TAP-ribose conjugates in high yield (60-90%). When cyanuric acid (CA), a plausible ancestral nucleobase, is mixed with a crude TAP+ribose reaction mixture, micrometer-length supramolecular, noncovalent assemblies are formed. A major product of the TAP+ribose reaction is a β-ribofuranoside of TAP, which we term TARC. This nucleoside is also shown to efficiently form supramolecular assemblies in water by pairing and stacking with CA. These results provide a proof-of-concept system demonstrating that several challenges associated with the prebiotic emergence of RNA, or pre-RNA polymers, may not be as problematic as widely believed.

DNA Origami as a DNA Repair Nanosensor at the Single-Molecule Level†

The folding of DNA molecules by DNA origami is used in a nanosensor to analyze enzymatic DNA repair activity of hAGT. The method uses conformational changes that condition α-thrombin interaction with DNA aptamers, and illustrates the use of DNA origami as a proteinrecognition biosensor.

Folding and Imaging of DNA Nanostructures in Anhydrous and Hydrated Deep‐Eutectic Solvents

There is great interest in DNA nanotechnology, but its use has been limited to aqueous or substantially hydrated media. The first assembly of a DNA nanostructure in a water-free solvent, namely a low-volatility biocompatible deep-eutectic solvent composed of a 4:1 mixture of glycerol and choline chloride (glycholine), is now described. Glycholine allows for the folding of a two-dimensional DNA origami at 20 °C in six days, whereas in hydrated glycholine, folding is accelerated (≤3 h). Moreover, a three-dimensional DNA origami and a DNA tail system can be folded in hydrated glycholine under isothermal conditions. Glycholine apparently reduces the kinetic traps encountered during folding in aqueous solvent. Furthermore, folded structures can be transferred between aqueous solvent and glycholine. It is anticipated that glycholine and similar solvents will allow for the creation of functional DNA structures of greater complexity by providing a milieu with tunable properties that can be optimized for a range of applications and nanostructures.

DNA‐Origami‐Driven Lithography for Patterning on Gold Surfaces with Sub‐10 nm Resolution

Sub-10 nm lithography of DNA patterns is achieved using the DNA-origami stamping method. This new strategy utilizes DNA origami to bind a preprogrammed DNA ink pattern composed of thiol-modified oligonucleotides on gold surfaces. Upon denaturation of the DNA origami, the DNA ink pattern is exposed. The pattern can then be developed by hybridization with complementary strands carrying gold nanoparticles.

Interstrand interactions on DNA duplexes modified by TTF units at the 3′ or 5′-ends

Short DNA duplexes carrying TTF units at the same termini exhibit a high increase in melting temperature. When both TTF units were on opposite termini, salt-dependent aggregation is observed, yielding well defined spherical DNA supramolecular structures.

20 Supramolecular polymerization of nucleobase-like monomers in water

Elucidating the physiochemical principles that govern molecular self-assembly is of great importance for understanding biological systems and may provide insight into the emergence of the earliest macromolecules of life, an important challenge facing the RNA World hypothesis. Self-assembly results from a delicate balance between multiple noncovalent interactions and solvent effects, but achieving efficient self-assembly in aqueous solution with synthetic molecules has proven particularly challenging. Here, we demonstrate how two physical properties – monomer solubility and large hydrophobic surfaces of intermediate structures – are key elements to achieving supramolecular polymers in aqueous solution (Cafferty et al., 2013). Applying these two principles, we report the highly cooperative self-assembly of two weakly interacting, low molecular weight monomers [cyanuric acid and a modified triaminopyrimidine] into a water-soluble supramolecular assembly (see scheme below). The observed equilibrium between only two appreciably populated states – free monomers and supramolecular assemblies – is in excellent agreement with the values previously determined for the free energy of hydrogen bonding (Klostermeier & Millar, 2002), π − π stacking (Frier et al., 1985), and the calculated free energy penalty for the solvation of hydrophobic structures in water (Chandler, 2005). The similarity of the molecules used in this study for the nucleobases found in contemporary nucleic acids and the demonstration that these monomers assemble while the natural nucleobases do not, suggests that the first informational polymers may have emerged from a similar self-assembly process, if the nucleobases were different then they are today (Hud et al., 2013).

Preparation and AFM-Characterization of Self-Assembled Monolayers Functionalized with a Thrombin Binding Aptamer

Self-assembled monolayers on silicon oxide surfaces functionalized with a unimolecular DNA G-quadruplex derived from the thrombin binding aptamer have been prepared. The formation of the G-quadruplex in the presence of potassium ions is observed by atomic force microscopy (AFM). The results presented here are interesting for the fabrication of nanostructured systems for sensing applications