Isabelle Baltenweck

Location and uptake: integrated household and GIS analysis of technology adoption and land use, with application to smallholder dairy farms in Kenya

GIS-derived measures of location and space have increasingly been used in models of land use and ecology. However, they have made few inroads into the literature on technology adoption in developing countries, which continues to rely mainly on survey-derived information. Location, with all its dimensions of market access, demographics and agro-climate, nevertheless remains key to understanding potential for technology use. The measures oflocation typically used in the adoption literature, such as locational dummy variables that proxy a range of locational factors, now appear relatively crude given the increased availability of more explicit GIS-derived measures. This paper attempts to demonstrate the usefulness of integrating GIS-measures into analysis of technology uptake, for better differentiating and understanding locational effects. A set of GIS-derived measures of market access and agro-climate are included in a standard household model of technology uptake, applied to smallholder dairy farms in Kenya, using a sample of 3330 geo-referenced farm households. The three technologies examined are keeping of dairy cattle, planting of specialised fodder, and use of concentrate feed. Logit estimations are conducted that significantly differentiate effects of individual household characteristics from those related to location. The predicted values of the locational variables are then used to make spatial predictions of technology potential. Comparisons are made with estimations based only on survey data, which demonstrate that while overall explanatory power may not improve with GIS-derived variables, the latter yield more practical interpretations, which is further demonstrated through predictions of technology uptake change with a shift in infrastructure policy. Although requiring large geo-referenced data sets and high resolution GIS layers, the methodology demonstrates the potential to better unravel the multiple effects of location on farmer decisions on technology and land use.

Livestock and Women’s Livelihoods

Livestock make substantial contributions to the livelihoods of poor women in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, yet the factors that enhance or constrain livestock-related opportunities for women have received relatively little empirical analysis. This review applies a gender lens to a conceptual framework for understanding the role of livestock in pathways out of poverty, using a livelihoods approach that centralizes the importance of assets, markets, and other institutions. The three hypothesized livestock pathways out of poverty are (1) securing current and future assets, (2) sustaining and improving the productivity of agricultural systems in which livestock are important, and (3) facilitating greater participation of the poor in livestock-related markets. While these three pathways are distinct, with each requiring particular strategies and interventions to be successful, they are not mutually exclusive. The chapter summarizes what is known for each pathway and what these pathways imply for programmatic and policy interventions.

Economic valuation of sheep genetic resources: implications for sustainable utilization in the Kenyan semi-arid tropics

Sheep, recognised as one of the important livestock species especially in the semi-arid tropics with high genetic resource potentials, can be exploited through sustainable utilization in order to improve livestock keepers’ livelihoods. This study presents the evaluation of the economic values of sheep genetic resources (SGR) in terms of the important non-market traits embedded in sheep and how this information can be utilised to improve livelihoods in semi-arid regions. The results obtained from mixed logit models results derived from stated choice data collected from 157 respondents in the semi-arid Marsabit district of Kenya reveal that disease resistance is the most highly valued trait whose resultant increment results into a welfare improvement of up to KShs.1537. Drought tolerance and fat deposition traits were found to be implicitly valued at KShs.694 and 738 respectively. The results further point out that for livestock stakeholders to effectively improve the livelihoods of poor livestock-keepers, development strategies for improving the management and/or utilisation of SGR in terms of drought tolerance, should not only be tailor made to target regions that are frequently devastated by drought but should also succeed other strategies or efforts that would first lead to the improvement of producers’ economic status.

Valuing goat genetic resources: a pro-poor growth strategy in the Kenyan semi-arid tropics

Goats, “the poor man’s cow”, provide very important genetic resources that can be exploited for continued improvements of the livelihoods of poor livestock keepers in the semi-arid tropics. This study presents the evaluation of the economic values of goat genetic resources (GGRs) in terms of the important non-market traits embedded in goats and how this information can be utilised to improve livelihoods in semi-arid regions. The results obtained from mixed logit models derived from stated choice data collected from 314 respondents in the semi-arid Marsabit district of Kenya reveal that disease resistance is the most highly valued trait whose resultant augmentation results into a welfare improvement of up to KShs.2899. Drought tolerance and milk traits were found to be implicitly valued at KShs.2620 and 1179 respectively. The study further revealed that improvement in milk trait in does, body size and disease resistance traits in bucks, and drought tolerance trait in both does and bucks will collectively improve the producers’ welfare hence should be given priority. However, improvement in the reproduction and production (“overall body condition/ meatiness” trait) potential of goats will be worthwhile only if issues concerning access to pasture and water resources are addressed prior and simultaneously.

Emerging Markets in the Post-Liberalisation Period: Evidence from the Raw Milk Market in Rural Kenya

Have recent reforms improved market functioning in African economies? This article examines how the raw milk market in western and central Kenya has developed after the dairy sector liberalisation in 1992 by using panel data of 862 rural households. From the late 1990s to 2004, the proportion of rural households who sold milk increased from 37 to 51%. During the same period, the proportion of households who sold milk to traders more than doubled, while it declined from 29 to 12% for those who sold milk to dairy cooperatives. On the basis of the price differentials between the farm gate and retail prices, we find that the functioning of the market improved between the late 1990s and 2004; in turn, the development of the milk market has increased the adoption of improved cows, resulting in higher milk sales. Copyright 2010 The author 2009. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Centre for the Study of African Economies. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oxfordjournals.org, Oxford University Press.

Value Chain Upgrading and the Inclusion of Smallholders in Markets: Reflections on Contributions of Multi-Stakeholder Processes in Dairy Development in Tanzania

Increasingly, value chain approaches are integrated with multi-stakeholder processes to facilitate inclusive innovation and value chain upgrading of smallholders. This pathway to smallholder integration into agri-food markets has received limited analysis. This article analyses this integration through a case study of an ongoing smallholder dairy development programme in Tanzania. Value chain upgrading and innovation systems perspectives were combined in an analytical framework to interpret the findings, which show that multi-stakeholder processes enhance horizontal and vertical coordination but limit process and product upgrading. The main conclusion is that, although such processes may catalyze smallholder market inclusion, their effects are largely bounded by existing value chain structures (e.g. production system, fragmented markets), timeframe and how prevailing institutional constraints are addressed, which may constrain the intentions of such collaboration action. This calls attention to the starting points of value chain interventions and the socio-political dynamics that are part of multi-stakeholder processes.De plus en plus, on intègre l’approche de la chaîne de valeur à celle de l’étude des processus de diverses parties prenantes, afin de faciliter l’innovation inclusive et l’amélioration de la chaîne de valeur des petits cultivateurs. Le trajet d’intégration des petits agriculteurs aux marchés agroalimentaires n’a pas été très analysé. Cet article examine cette intégration à travers une étude de cas, celui d’une petite exploitation agricole et laitière, faisant partie d’un programme de développement en Tanzanie. Au sein d’un cadre analytique d’interprétation des résultats, on a intégré les perspectives d’amélioration de la chaîne de valeur et des systèmes d’innovation. On a vu que les processus impliquant divers parties prenantes renforcent la coordination horizontale et verticale, mais au même temps ils limitent la valorisation des produits et des procès. La conclusion principale est que même si ces processus servent de catalyseurs a l’intégration des petits cultivateurs au marché, leurs effets sont délimites par la structure existante de la chaîne de valeur (par exemple, le système de production, la fragmentation des marchés), par la période considéré, et par comment les contraintes institutionnelles sont abordés, puisqu’elles peuvent limiter les intentions de ces actions collaboratives. D’ici on veut porter l’attention sur le point de départ des interventions sur les chaînes de valeur, et aussi sur les dynamiques socio-politiques qui font partie des processus avec diverses parties prenantes.

Dairy farm households, processor linkages and household income: the case of dairy hub linkages in East Africa

In this study we have analysed the effects of household linkages to milk market via dairy hubs currently implemented under the East African Dairy Development project. Our analyses show that participation in dairy hubs increases dairy revenues by USD 1,022 on average. Impacts are higher for households participating in hubs supplying exclusively to processors (USD 1,673) relative to ones supplying hubs that pursue mixed-linkage approach. Moreover, participation in dairy hubs also yields significant effect on household income. Appropriate measures should be undertaken to widen the reach of such processor linkages while also safeguarding existing gains, more so as the processing sector becomes more concentrated.

Community-based interventions for the use and conservation of animal genetic resources: the case of indigenous scavenger chicken production in Benin

Scavenging chicken production in Africa is important for the livelihood of the poor. In most countries, these low inputs, low output systems employ local breeds making use of the feeding resources available in the household. However, their replacement with introduced exotic breeds with higher productivities represents a risk for their conservation. Here, we present a simulation model to evaluate the impact of community-based interventions aiming to improve the profitability of local chicken breeds and promote their use and conservation. The results indicate that under the current conditions, farmers producing exotic chicken are able to sell more animals in a one year period; however the market price of local chicken makes their production more profitable. Vaccination campaigns significantly reduce the mortality rate of both breeds, having a positive effect on producers’ income but its impact on animal off-take is larger for exotic breeds, and the availability of feeding resources is the limiting factor as the flock size increases. The results of the intervention are positive in terms of increasing farmers’ income but do not clearly contribute to the conservation of indigenous breeds since after the vaccination campaign, the gap between the profitability of indigenous and exotic breeds is reduced. The simulation model indicates that under the current conditions, the conservation of indigenous chicken breeds in Benin is maintained by the existence of distinct niche markets with consumers able to pay higher prices for indigenous chicken. Policies for the conservation of chicken genetic resources in Benin are discussed.

Characterisation of adopters and non-adopters of dairy technologies in Ethiopia and Kenya

While there is a general consensus that using dairy technologies, such as improved breeds of dairy cows, can substantially increase farm productivity and income, adoption of such technologies has been generally low in developing countries. The underlying reasons for non-adoption of beneficial technologies in the dairy sector are not fully understood. In this study, we characterised adopters and non-adopters of dairy technologies in Ethiopia and Kenya based on farmers’ resources ownership in order to identify why many farmers in Ethiopia and Kenya have not adopted improved dairy technologies. As compared to non-adopters, farmers who adopt dairy technology own relatively more farm resources. The result signals that differences in resource endowments could lead to divergent technology adoption scenarios. Results show that a higher proportion of sample smallholders in Kenya have adopted dairy technologies than those in Ethiopia. Except for the use of veterinary services, fewer than 10% of sample farmers in Ethiopia have adopted dairy technologies—less than half the number of adopters in Kenya. The higher level of dairy technology adoption in Kenya can be ascribed partly to the long history of dairy development, including improvements in the value chain for the delivery of inputs, services and fluid milk marketing. Interventions that deal with the constraints related to access to farm resources and input and output markets could facilitate uptake of dairy technology in developing countries.

Gendered perspectives on smallholder cattle production and health management in three sites in Tanzania

Dairy farming offers opportunities to address poverty and food security among small-scale livestock keepers in Tanzania, particularly rural women. Animal health problems greatly hinder dairy farming in the country, making animal health interventions critical for achieving food security. Limited gender research has been undertaken on animal health and in relation to food security in rural households. Based on six focus group discussions, twelve individual interviews and a literature review, this study provides a gender analysis of animal health in small-scale dairy farming and the food security implications in three villages of Tanzania. The findings show that both women and men respondents were involved in animal health management and had similar knowledge of diseases. They also show how animal diseases impact the food security of women in particular. Yet, women were found to face more constraints than men in accessing vet services, information on diseases, and animal medicines. The article concludes by suggesting possible ways of minimizing gender disparities in animal health management.