Itay Basevitch

Emotions–decision-making in sport: Theoretical conceptualization and experimental evidence

We review current evidence on the linkage between emotion and decision-making (DM) in sports, and the appraisal, emotions, and cognitions linkage under temporal and societal pressure. The conceptual framework proposes that perceptions and actions are stored and retrieved from the same representation structure, and thus stimuli are either negatively or positively appraised and evoke emotions, which in turn activate cognitive processes linked to DM. The emotion–cognition congruence concept relies on the notion that neural network in long-term memory is activated when events occur, and influences the capacity of the cognitive system to make the decision for response execution. The quality of this process is considered by us as the underlying mechanism of functioning in or out of the individual or team zone of optimal functioning. We also claim that basic regulations stabilize the action system under conditions which vary in perceived pressure. Using mental routines stabilize the emotional level required to perform the task. Process regulations are used for capturing environmental cues to direct attention selectively, and make the response-selection and DM for action execution. The interface between the two coping regulations influences the quality of both the DM and consequent performance. This concept is applied to individual and team processes alike.

Associative and Dissociative Imagery Effects on Perceived Exertion and Task Duration

The study was designed to examine the effects of associative and dissociative imagery interventions on reported ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and task-duration across a handgrip-squeezing task. Sixty adults (Mage = 22.19 years) were randomly assigned to three groups: associative imagery, dissociative imagery, and control (non-imagery). Participants were instructed to perform a 30% maximal handgrip-squeezing task until volitional fatigue. During the squeezing task, RPE and attention allocation were measured every 30 seconds. A series of RM MANOVA procedures revealed that (a) RPE increased linearly across all three groups as a function of increased effort output, (b) as compared to control participants, RPE was lower in participants using either associative or dissociative imagery, and (c) as compared to control participants, participants using either imagery remained longer on task. While the effects of imagery use on RPE and task-duration were descriptively evident, not all effects were significant. Future studies must examine imagery applications for tasks that vary in workload intensities. Findings shed light on interventions that can possibly render exercise experience more pleasant and less exertive for the general population.

The impact of mobile phone use on where we look and how we walk when negotiating floor based obstacles

Pedestrians regularly engage with their mobile phone whilst walking. The current study investigated how mobile phone use affects where people look (visual search behaviour) and how they negotiate a floor based hazard placed along the walking path. Whilst wearing a mobile eye tracker and motion analysis sensors, participants walked up to and negotiated a surface height change whilst writing a text, reading a text, talking on the phone, or without a phone. Differences in gait and visual search behaviour were found when using a mobile phone compared to when not using a phone. Using a phone resulted in looking less frequently and for less time at the surface height change, which led to adaptations in gait by negotiating it in a manner consistent with adopting an increasingly cautious stepping strategy. When using a mobile phone, writing a text whilst walking resulted in the greatest adaptions in gait and visual search behaviour compared to reading a text and talking on a mobile phone. Findings indicate that mobile phone users were able to adapt their visual search behaviour and gait to incorporate mobile phone use in a safe manner when negotiating floor based obstacles.

The judgement of research quality: a response to John Smith

The paper by John Smith (2009) relies on the assumption that positivists’ proPopperian methodology of making science is historically rooted in some kind of a social-political-religious conspiracy aimed at exhibiting power of respective institutions. It remains, however, the mainstream methodology today though it is not explicitly claimed to be attributed to the same reasons. The conclusions of the article are somewhat different from sharing the ‘conspiracy theory’, and are based more on familial experiences, and their personal interpretations. The main question after reading the article remains: How can we distinguish between good and ‘not so good’ scientific inquiries, and does this article provide us with better tools to do so? I will briefly share with the readers my impressions and reflections. It is claimed that well-known scientists, such as Galton and Pearson, among others, developed their scientific methods and tools to justify the interests and policies of the formal institution about the distribution of intelligence among human beings. To do so, also the statistical methods of observing and analysing data, which pertain to intelligence, were developed to satisfy the ‘power intentions’ of policy-makers, who happen to belong of course to the upper class. To make justice to this view, one may assume that political interests indeed govern research preference; this is the case also with US NIH and NSF grants today. However, does this indicate that the research method adapts accordingly to political preferences? Isn’t it more reasonable to assume that the first statisticians in the UK, headed by Fisher, were driven more by developing statistical tools which better fit the data and phenomenon under investigation than by ‘power and dominance’ needs? Say this tools would not be developed, can we assume that intelligence is NOT normally distributed in the population? What exactly one tries to say here: Is the distribution of intelligence in the population dependent on institutional power interest? Of course, the arguments about political and institutional power are valid today as they were in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, but the making of science and the development of scientific tools were independent of these needs, unless one comes and presents hard evidence of this conspiracy theory. This of course is not aimed at disputing the new trend of using qualitative and mixed methods in social and behavioural sciences. Just as rigorous are the methods in the life and natural

Pacing accuracy during an incremental step test in adolescent swimmers.

To assess pacing accuracy in a group of adolescent swimmers during an incremental step test. Fifteen well-trained swimmers (age 15±1.5 years; height 170.2±8.8 cm; mass 60.2±6.6 kg), completed two 7×200 m tests, separated by ~72 hours. They swam to a predetermined incrementally increasing pace per step and were instructed to swim at even pace. Upon completion of each step, rating of perceived exertion, heart rate and blood lactate were recorded. Significant differences observed for both trials between actual and predicted swim time (P<0.05). Significant differences also observed between the first and second 100 m of each step in trial 1 for step 1 (P=0.001, effect size [ES] =0.54), step 2 (P=0.0001, ES =0.57), step 4 (P=0.0001, ES =0.53), step 5 (P=0.005, ES =0.65), step 6 (P=0.0001, ES =0.50), and step 7 (P=0.0001, ES =0.70). Similar responses witnessed for trial 2 (P<0.05). Findings suggest that the finite anaerobic capacity was engaged sooner than would normally be anticipated, as a function of an inability to regulate pace. This is proposed to be a consequence of the volume of exposure to the biological and psychological sensations and cognitive developmental status. Given the apparent error in pacing judgment exhibited in this population group, caution should be applied when adopting such tests to monitor training responses with adolescent athletes, and alternate means of modulating pace be investigated.

Visual and skill effects on soccer passing performance, kinematics, and outcome estimations

The role of visual information and action representations in executing a motor task was examined from a mental representations approach. High-skill (n = 20) and low-skill (n = 20) soccer players performed a passing task to two targets at distances of 9.14 and 18.29 m, under three visual conditions: normal, occluded, and distorted vision (i.e., +4.0 corrective lenses, a visual acuity of approximately 6/75) without knowledge of results. Following each pass, participants estimated the relative horizontal distance from the target as the ball crossed the target plane. Kinematic data during each pass were also recorded for the shorter distance. Results revealed that performance on the motor task decreased as a function of visual information and task complexity (i.e., distance from target) regardless of skill level. High-skill players performed significantly better than low-skill players on both the actual passing and estimation tasks, at each target distance and visual condition. In addition, kinematic data indicated that high-skill participants were more consistent and had different kinematic movement patterns than low-skill participants. Findings contribute to the understanding of the underlying mechanisms required for successful performance in a self-paced, discrete and closed motor task.

Visual Search Behavior in Individuals With Retinitis Pigmentosa During Level Walking and Obstacle Crossing

Purpose Investigate the visual search strategy of individuals with retinitis pigmentosa (RP) when negotiating a floor-based obstacle compared with level walking, and compared with those with normal vision. Methods Wearing a mobile eye tracker, individuals with RP and normal vision walked along a level walkway or walked along the walkway negotiating a floor-based obstacle. In the level walking condition, tape was placed on the floor to act as an object attracting visual attention. Analysis compared where individuals looked within the environment. Results In the obstacle compared with level walking condition: (1) the RP group reduced the length of time and the number of times they looked Ahead, and increased the time and how often they looked at features on the ground (Object and Down, P < 0.05); and (2) the visual normal group reduced the time (by 19%) they looked Ahead (P = 0.076), and increased the time and how often they looked at the Object (P < 0.05). Compared with the normal vision group, in both level walking and obstacle conditions, the RP group reduced the time looking Ahead and looked for longer and more often Down (P < 0.05). Conclusions The RP group demonstrated a more active visual search pattern, looking at more areas on the ground in both level walking and obstacle crossing compared with visual normals. This gaze strategy was invariant across conditions. This is most likely due to the constricted visual field and inability to rely on inferior peripheral vision to acquire information from the floor within the environment when walking.

Effects of acute exercise on executive functioning: Testing the moderators

Two studies have tested the moderators between acute exercise and executive function gains. In study 1, 60 participants were assigned to 2 groups and performed a handgrip squeezing task at 30% of their maximal voluntary contraction or a stepping task to the cadence of a metronome. Rate of perceived exertions (RPE) and heart rate were measured at 30 s intervals. Trail-making test (TMT) was administered prior to task performance, following RPE = 6 and RPE = 9. In study 2, 83 participants were assigned to 1 of 5 groups. They performed either a handgrip squeezing task or a stepping task up to RPE = 6 or RPE = 9. Participants in the control group have not been engaged in any exercise tasks. Measures of executive function were administered at rest, immediately following exercise tasks, and after 15 min delay. Results from study 1 revealed that both the handgrip squeezing and stepping tasks improved TMT scores after RPE = 9 (p < .001). In study 2, executive function scores improved following the handgrip and stepping tasks regardless of the exercise intensity. The control condition resulted in similar results to that of the handgrip and stepping conditions. These findings help delineate the role of moderators in the acute exercise–cognitive gains linkage. Alternative “control” conditions must be tested for broader conclusions and implications.

Are the Measurements of Attention Allocation and Perceived Exertion Trustworthy

Two studies examined the trustworthiness of commonly used measurement scales for ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and state attentional focus (SAF) during exercise. In Study 1, participants (N = 24, 14 female) performed a treadmill graded-exercise test. The order of scale presentation during the task was manipulated (i.e., RPE followed by SAF or vice versa). In Study 2 the same order manipulation was used while participants (N = 70, 36 female) performed a stepping task for three consecutive trials. Additionally, time intervals between scale presentations were manipulated (i.e., 30 sec, 60 sec, or 90 sec) and counterbalanced between trials. Non-significant order effects of RPE and SAF emerged in both studies; however, a more frequent presentation of the two scales (30 sec and 60 sec) yielded higher RPE scores and increased associative attentional focus than a less frequent presentation (90 sec). The authors recommend minimizing measurement interruptions during the measurement process.

Sport psychology group consultation using social networking web sites.

A social networking Web site, Facebook, was used to deliver long-term sport psychology consultation services to student-athletes (i.e., soccer players) in 30- to 60-min weekly sessions. Additional short-term team building, group cohesion, communication, anger management, injury rehabilitation, mental toughness, commitment, and leadership workshops were provided. Cohesion and overall relationships between both the student-athletes and the sport psychology consultants benefited from this process. Social networking Web sites offer a practical way of providing sport psychology consulting services that does not require use of major resources.