Ivan K. H. Poon

Molecular mechanisms of late apoptotic/necrotic cell clearance

Phagocytosis serves as one of the key processes involved in development, maintenance of tissue homeostasis, as well as in eliminating pathogens from an organism. Under normal physiological conditions, dying cells (e.g., apoptotic and necrotic cells) and pathogens (e.g., bacteria and fungi) are rapidly detected and removed by professional phagocytes such as macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs). In most cases, specific receptors and opsonins are used by phagocytes to recognize and bind their target cells, which can trigger the intracellular signalling events required for phagocytosis. Depending on the type of target cell, phagocytes may also release both immunomodulatory molecules and growth factors to orchestrate a subsequent immune response and wound healing process. In recent years, evidence is growing that opsonins and receptors involved in the removal of pathogens can also aid the disposal of dying cells at all stages of cell death, in particular plasma membrane-damaged cells such as late apoptotic and necrotic cells. This review provides an overview of the molecular mechanisms and the immunological outcomes of late apoptotic/necrotic cell removal and highlights the striking similarities between late apoptotic/necrotic cell and pathogen clearance.

Histidine-rich glycoprotein: the Swiss Army knife of mammalian plasma

Histidine-rich glycoprotein (HRG), also known as histidine-proline-rich glyco-protein, is an abundant and well-characterized protein of vertebrate plasma. HRG has a multidomain structure that allows the molecule to interact with many ligands, including heparin, phospholipids, plasminogen, fibrinogen, immunoglobulin G, C1q, heme, and Zn²(+). The ability of HRG to interact with various ligands simultaneously has suggested that HRG can function as an adaptor molecule and regulate numerous important biologic processes, such as immune complex/necrotic cell/pathogen clearance, cell adhesion, angiogenesis, coagulation, and fibrinolysis. The present review covers the proposed multifunctional roles of HRG with a focus on recent findings that have led to its emergence as a key regulator of immunity and vascular biology. Also included is a discussion of the striking functional similarities between HRG and other important multifunctional proteins found in plasma, such as C-reactive protein, C1q, β₂ glycoprotein I, and thrombospondin-1.

Histidine-rich glycoprotein is a novel plasma pattern recognition molecule that recruits IgG to facilitate necrotic cell clearance via FcγRI on phagocytes

Under normal physiologic conditions, necrotic cells resulting from tissue injury are rapidly removed from the circulation and tissues by phagocytes, thus preventing the exposure of intracellular antigenic and immunostimulatory molecules that can aid the development of autoimmune disease. Histidine-rich glycoprotein (HRG), a relatively abundant plasma glycoprotein, has a multidomain structure that can interact with many ligands including components of the fibrinolytic and immune systems. Recently, it has been reported that HRG can bind strongly to cytoplasmic ligand(s) exposed in necrotic cells to enhance clearance by phagocytes. Here we describe the molecular mechanisms underpinning this process. A complex consisting of both HRG and immunoglobulin G (IgG) was found as necessary to aid necrotic cell uptake by monocytes, predominantly via an FcgammaRI-dependent mechanism. The findings in this study also show that HRG can potentially interact with anionic phospholipids exposed in necrotic cells. Furthermore, the enhanced phagocytosis of necrotic cells induced by HRG-IgG complexes triggers phagocytes to release proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-8 and tumor necrosis factor. Thus, HRG has the unique property of complexing with IgG and facilitating a proinflammatory innate immune response to promote the clearance of necrotic cells.

Histidine-rich glycoprotein functions cooperatively with cell surface heparan sulfate on phagocytes to promote necrotic cell uptake

Dying cells, such as apoptotic and necrotic cells, are cleared rapidly from the site of cell death to prevent the exposure of intracellular antigenic and immunostimulatory molecules that may cause tissue injury or facilitate the development of autoimmune diseases. For the immune system to recognize and remove dying cells efficiently, professional phagocytes use a variety of mechanisms that distinguish healthy cells from dying cells. HRG, a relatively abundant heparin/HS‐binding protein in human plasma, has been shown recently to tether IgG specifically to necrotic cells and aid the phagocytic uptake of necrotic cells via a FcγRI‐dependent pathway. In this study, we provide direct evidence that HRG can function cooperatively with cell surface HS on the monocytic cell line THP‐1 to promote necrotic cell removal. In addition, we found that the presence of heparin can markedly inhibit HRG‐enhanced necrotic cell clearance by THP‐1 cells, possibly by blocking the ability of HRG to interact with necrotic cells as well as THP‐1 cells. Thus, these data suggest that HRG can aid the phagocytosis of necrotic cells via a HS‐dependent pathway, and this process can be regulated by the presence of certain HRG ligands, such as heparin.

Regulation of histidine-rich glycoprotein (HRG) function via plasmin-mediated proteolytic cleavage.

The plasminogen/plasmin system is involved in a variety of normal physiological and pathological processes, including tissue remodelling, angiogenesis and tumour metastasis. Plasminogen activators and receptors for plasminogen/plasminogen activators are essential for the processing of plasminogen to form the active serine protease plasmin. Plasmin can in turn positively or negatively regulate further plasminogen activation via plasmin-mediated cleavage of receptors and activators. HRG (histidine-rich glycoprotein), a relatively abundant (approx. 100-150 microg/ml) plasma glycoprotein, has a multi-domain structure that can interact with many ligands, including Zn2+, heparin, HS (heparan sulfate) and plasminogen. HRG has been shown to function as an adaptor molecule to tether plasminogen to GAG (glycosaminoglycan)-bearing surfaces and to regulate plasminogen activation via various mechanisms. As HRG itself is sensitive to plasmin cleavage, the present study examines in detail the cleavage of human HRG by plasmin and the effect of this cleavage on various functions of HRG. HRG fragments, generated by plasmin cleavage, are held together by disulfide linkages and are not released from the molecule under non-reducing conditions. Plasmin-mediated cleavage partially inhibited HRG binding to cell surface HS, but enhanced HRG binding to necrotic cells and to plasminogen. However, both intact and plasmin-cleaved HRG enhanced the binding of plasminogen to heparin-coated surfaces to a similar extent. Furthermore, the presence of heparin, Zn2+ or acidic pH was found to protect HRG from plasmin cleavage. Thus proteolytic cleavage of HRG by plasmin may provide a feedback mechanism to regulate the effects of HRG on the plasminogen/plasmin system and other functions of HRG.

Histidine-rich glycoprotein binds heparanase and regulates its enzymatic activity and cell surface interactions.

Heparanase, an endo-beta-D-glucuronidase, is involved in numerous normal physiological and pathological processes, such as inflammation, wound healing and tumour metastasis/angiogenesis, through its ability to mediate the degradation of heparan sulfate, a key structural component of the extracellular matrix and on the surface of cells. Identifying endogenous molecules that can regulate heparanase activity will aid the understanding of its molecular function in health and disease and provide the potential for development of novel anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory therapeutics. The ability of the extracellular heparanase to tether onto cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans and other receptor(s), such as the cation-independent mannose-6-phosphate receptor, is key to its activation, function and uptake into intracellular compartments. Here we describe experiments demonstrating that a relatively abundant plasma glycoprotein, histidine-rich glycoprotein, directly interacts with platelet-derived heparanase and enhances its enzymatic activity. The findings in this study also show that histidine-rich glycoprotein interferes with heparanase binding to cell surface receptors, particularly heparan sulfate proteoglycans. Thus, the interaction between histidine-rich glycoprotein and heparanase can potentially regulate the role of heparanase in a variety of physiological and pathological conditions.