Ivana Bianchi

Dimensions and their poles: A metric and topological approach to opposites

We explored the nature of 37 spatial dimensions in Italian, such as lungo–corto (long–short), inizio–fine (beginning–end), and convergente–divergente (convergent–divergent). In Study 1 we investigated their metric structure. We asked: (1) Are the extensions of the two poles (P 1 and P 2) the same? (2) What proportion of each dimension can be said to be neither P 1 nor P 2? and (3) Is the extension of P 1 that can be called neither P 1 nor P 2, the same as the extension of P 2 that can be called neither P 1 nor P 2? In Study 2 we investigated the topological structure of the dimensions. We asked: (1) Are the poles, points or ranges? (2) Do intermediates (neither P 1 nor P 2) exist? and (3) If they do, are they points or ranges? Two metric properties explained a considerable proportion of the variation in the responses in the first task: (1) the asymmetry of the extension of the two poles and (2) the extension of the “neither–nor” region between them. The results of the topological task further refined the two-dimensional structure obtained in Study 1 to produce a map of spatial opposites. Our methods and the resulting maps provide a point of departure from which two questions can be investigated: (1) If these methods were used in other languages to study spatial opposites, to what extent would they produce similar maps of opposites? and (2) If these methods were applied to nonspatial opposites and maps analogous to our spatial maps were generated, would any dense regions in the nonspatial maps coincide with sparse regions in the spatial maps? We discuss the potential importance of these questions.

Perceptual ratings of opposite spatial properties: do they lie on the same dimension?

The issue of unidimensionality is dealt with in various research areas in the field of Psychology (e.g. conceptual spaces, semantic modeling, psychometrics) and always involves spatial modeling. An investigation of the dimensionality of opposite spatial scales (even basic) has however not yet been carried out. In this paper we look at whether opposite judgments of height, size, width and length (high/low, large/small, wide/narrow, and long/short) imply underlying unidimensional continua. In three experiments, independent ratings for the 8 above mentioned properties were elicited with participants looking at photographic representations of various objects (Study 1), real life objects (Study 2) and spatial extensions in object-independent conditions (Study 3). Explorative and confirmative factor analysis and Andrich Extended Rating Scale Models were applied in order to determine whether the ratings referred to opposite scales on the same linear continuum. Results from the three studies consistently revealed that this is not the case. A joint analysis of the data showed interesting interactions between the spatial properties analyzed suggesting a possible explanation for the lack of unidimensionality.

The middle of the road: perceiving intermediates.

This article aims to study the extension and immediacy of the perception of intermediates during the observation of images showing a variation in a spatial property from one extreme (e.g. at the top of a mountain) to the opposite extreme (e.g. at the bottom of a mountain). Three experiments were carried out: rating tasks were used in studies 1 and 3 and a classification task in study 2. Three main results emerged. The first result (concerning extension) is that people consistently recognize some instances of a dimension as intermediates (neither a… nor b) rather than as one or the other opposite pole (a, b). The number of these cases ranges from one to most of the experiences in between the two extremes, depending on the type of opposite considered. The second result (concerning immediacy) is that recognizing and rating intermediates did not take longer in most cases than recognizing and rating the two poles. The third result (concerning task influence) is that there were differences due to the type of task, i.e. rating and classification. The implications of these results are discussed within the framework of theories grounding cognition in perception.

The Relationship Perceived between the Real Body and the Mirror Image

We analyse here peoples perception of their reflections in mirrors placed in different positions. In two experiments, participants looked at their mirror image, in a third experiment they looked at another persons image. In both cases they were asked to answer a series of questions about how the virtual body appeared relative to the real body, focusing on different aspects. In experiment 1, they were asked to decide whether the reflections were identical, similar, different, or opposite in terms of the global relationship, orientation, and lateralisation (left-right arm). In experiment 2 they were instructed to make simple gestures and to evaluate if the gestures in the reflection were identical, opposite, similar, or different from theirs. Results show that ‘identity’ was preferred when the mirror was in front, and ‘opposition’ was preferred when the mirror was below. When opposition was experienced, it was attributed mainly to the exocentric frame of reference. Egocentric left – right reversal was not a common experience, although it was reported more frequently when the mirror was in front. The different roles of the exocentric and egocentric frames of reference were further tested in experiment 3, in which the condition of an observer looking at another persons reflection was studied. Contrary to the emphasis on the egocentric frame of reference in the literature on the ‘mirror question’, results presented in this paper demonstrate the importance of the exocentric frame of reference in influencing how observers react to their reflections.

Estimation and representation of head size (People overestimate the size of their head - evidence starting from the 15th century)

The head is a special part of our body since we do not see it directly. Four experiments were conducted to verify what healthy people know about the size of their head. As a control, we used the accuracy in estimating other peoples heads (in all the experiments) and the estimation of the size of another part of the body, the hand (in Experiment 4). Results showed that people overestimate their own head size compared to its actual size when visual information is not provided (Experiments 1-4). They also overestimate their head size compared to the heads of others whether viewed directly (Experiment 1) or from memory (Experiment 2). Overestimation with respect to the actual size is reduced when visual information is provided (Experiments 1 and 4) and when proprioception is (presumably) increased by wearing a headband (Experiment 3). Overestimation with respect to actual size is not found for hands (Experiment 4). In the final study evidence emerged of head size overestimation in self-portraits as compared to portraits of others.

Perception of Contrariety in Jokes

According to the cognitive approach to humor, the comprehension of humorous texts implies recognizing an incongruity and resolving it. This article studies whether the cognitive process involved in the recognition of incongruity is affected by the conditions that make contrariety evident or only analytically recognizable in the perceptual domain. In study 1, participants were asked to choose (condition 1) or rank (condition 2) the best humorous text among three variations of the same jokes in which the critical incongruity was a global, additive, or intermediate contrariety. In studies 2 and 3, they were asked to recognize the critical property on which these three versions of the jokes played. The findings confirmed that the perception of humor and recognition of the critical element was easier when the elements involved in the jokes were opposite in terms of global contrariety (which is the type of contrariety that is perceptually more evident and more easily perceivable).

Negation and psychological dimensions

This paper analyses whether negation, as a modifier of degree, leads to different outcomes based on the psychophysical structure of the polar dimension along which the shift produced by the negator “not” occurs. In three experiments, the interpretation of negation in association with four different types of dimension was analysed. The types comprised: (1) strongly asymmetrical dimensions, topologically defined (in terms of the characteristics of Pole a/intermediates/Pole b) as unbounded range/no intermediates/point (e.g., open–closed); (2) moderately asymmetrical dimensions, topologically defined as unbounded range/range of intermediates/bounded range (e.g., wide–narrow); (3) slightly symmetrical dimensions, topologically defined as point/range of intermediates/point (e.g., full–empty); and (4) symmetrical dimensions, topologically defined as bounded range/point/bounded range (e.g., above–below). Results showed that the function of negation varies depending on which type of dimension is involved. These results are discussed in relation to previous literature, where the definition of various types of antonyms was based on the applicability of different lexical modifiers of degree.

Does left-right orientation matter in the perceived expressiveness of pictures? A study of Bewick's animals (1753-1828).

Strong claims have been made about the importance of orientation in visual art. Although there have been a few studies whether left or right oriented pictures are more aesthetically pleasing, there have been no empirical studies whether the meaning and expressiveness of pictures depend on orientation. Thomas Bewick (1753–1828) made explicit decisions about whether the main protagonist in his pictures should face left or right and did so to express particular meaning. In three experiments we examined whether orientation changes the expressiveness of an image. In experiment 1 participants viewed eight of Bewicks animal wood engravings facing either in their original orientation or reversed, in a between-subjects design. They rated each print on ten characteristics, for example: docile–wild, clumsy–agile, and weak–strong. The original received more extreme ratings, across characteristics, than the reversal. Experiment 2 confirmed this result with participants from Italy. In experiment 3, using a within-subjects design, participants viewed ten wood engravings of dogs and rated them on characteristics specifically identified by Bewick. Again, the ratings of the original orientation were more extreme. Thus, in agreement with Bewick, we conclude that orientation affects expressiveness.

Contraries as an effective strategy in geometrical problem solving

A focused review of the literature on reasoning suggests that mechanisms based upon contraries are of fundamental importance in various abilities. At the same time, the importance of contraries in the human perceptual experience of space has been recently demonstrated in experimental studies. Solving geometry problems represents an interesting case as both reasoning abilities and the manipulation of perceptual–figural aspects are involved. In this study we focus on perceptual changes in geometrical problem solving processes in order to understand whether a mental manipulation in terms of opposites might help. Four conditions were studied, two of which concerned the search for contraries as an implicit or explicit strategy. Results demonstrated that contraries, when used explicitly in solution processes, constitute an effective heuristic: The number of correct solutions increased, less time was needed to find a solution and participants were oriented towards the use of perception-based solutions—not only were perceptual solutions more frequent, but also, more specifically, the number of correct perceptual solutions increased. These last results concerning perception-based solutions were found both when participants were advised about the usefulness of the strategy and when they were not advised. Differences concerning which aspects of a problem were focused on during the solution process also emerged.

The effects of modulating contrast in verbal irony as a cue for giftedness

Abstract This study adds to the existing literature on the ability to understand irony of typically developing versus gifted students (aged 12–15). In addition to the canonical condition of polarized statements applied to oppositely polarized situations, we also considered the case of intermediate statements and situations. The results showed a significant difference between the two groups of participants. Both groups recognized an ironic interpretation in the more usual condition of a polarized statement applied to a clearly oppositely polarized situation and they also grasped the idea that the bigger the contrast, the more ironic the message. However, gifted students demonstrated greater mastery, with regard to both polarized and intermediate statements. They also demonstrated greater ability compared with their non-gifted peers in the task which required them to explain the “rule” underlying the conditions which applied to the comments they had judged as ironic and to then produce ironic stories demonstrating the specificity of irony (not to be confused with generic humor).