J.A. Zevenbergen

The core cadastral domain model

Abstract A standardized core cadastral domain model (CCDM), covering land registration and cadastre in a broad sense (multipurpose cadastre), will serve at least two important goals: (1) Avoid re-inventing and re-implementing the same functionality over and over again, but provide a extensible basis for efficient and effective cadastral system development based on a model driven architecture (MDA), and (2) enable involved parties, both within one country and between different countries, to communicate based on the shared ontology implied by the model. The second goal is very important for creating standardized information services in an international context, where land administration domain semantics have to be shared between countries (in order to enable needed translations). This paper presents an overview of the core cadastral domain model and its developments over the last 4 years. The model has been developed in a set of versions, which were each time adjusted based on the discussions at workshops with international experts and the experience from case studies in several countries of the world (Netherlands, El Salvador, Bolivia, Denmark, Sweden, Portugal, Greece, Australia, Nepal, Egypt, Iceland, and several African and Arab countries). Important conditions during the design of the model were and still are: should cover the common aspects of cadastral registrations all over the world, should be based on the conceptual framework of Cadastre 2014, should follow the international ISO and OGC standards, and at the same time the model should be as simple as possible in order to be useful in practise. Besides presenting the CCDM itself this paper represents an important new wave in geo-information standardization: after the domain independent basic geo-information standards (current series of ISO and OGC standards), the new standards based on specific domains will now be developed. Due to historical differences between countries (and regions) similar domains, such as the cadastral domain, may be modeled differently and therefore non-trivial harmonisation has to be done first. The presented CCDM is a result of this harmonisation and one of the first presented examples of semantic geo-information domain standards. Besides the three well-known concepts, Parcel, Person and Right, at the class level the model also includes immovables such as Building and OtherRegisterObject (geometry of easement, like a right of way, protected region, legal space around utility object, etc.) and the following concepts: SourceDocument such as SurveyDocument or LegalDocument (e.g. deed or title), Responsibilities, Restrictions (defined as Rights by other Person than the one having the ownership Right) and Mortgages. At the attribute level of the model the following aspects are included: SalePrize, UseCode, TaxAmount, Interest, Ranking, Share, Measurements, QualityLabel, LegalSize, EstimatedSize, ComputedSize, TransformationParams, PointCode, and several different date/times. The heart of the model is based on the three classes: (1) RegisterObject (including all kinds of immovables and movables), (2) RRR (right, restriction, responsibility), and (3) Person (natural, non-natural and group). The model supports the temporal aspects of the involved classes and offers several levels of Parcel fuzziness: Parcel (full topology), SpaghettiParcel (only geometry), PointParcel (single point), and TextParcel (no coordinate, just a description). The geometry and topology (2D and 3D) are based on the OGC and ISO/TC211 standard classes. The model is specified in UML class diagrams and it is indicated how this UML model can be converted into and XML schema, which can then be used for actual data exchange in our networked society (interoperability).

Cadastral systems — alternatives

The importance of successful cadastral systems to a countrys economy, administration and rule of law are accepted by many. Several donor organizations have been, for quite some time, supportive of projects to make existing cadastral systems more successful or set up new ones. Nevertheless, there have been, and still are, problems with such projects. One of the reasons for such problems relates to the limited cadastral knowledge of local experts and to the fact that many foreign consultants are mainly familiar with the cadastral system of their own country. It is important for all the cadastral experts, whether they are local or foreign, to know that there are many alternatives, which in general, give a good solution. The article will introduce the most common alternatives for seven issues, like a centralized or decentralized cadastral system, land registration with a separate or integrated cadastre, and different parcel identification methods. Even though there seems to be little correlation between the alternatives used in a particular country and the question of whether its cadastral system is running well, the article ends with some conclusions based on our recent experiences in central Europe.

Data model for the collaboration between land administration systems and agricultural land parcel identification systems.

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the European Union (EU) has dramatically changed after 1992, and from then on the CAP focused on the management of direct income subsidies instead of production-based subsidies. For this focus, Member States (MS) are expected to establish Integrated Administration and Control System (IACS), including a Land Parcel Identification System (LPIS) as the spatial part of IACS. Different MS have chosen different solutions for their LPIS. Currently, some MS based their IACS/LPIS on data from their Land Administration Systems (LAS), and many others use purpose built special systems for their IACS/LPIS. The issue with these different IACS/LPIS is that they do not have standardized structures; rather, each represents a unique design in each MS, both in the case of LAS based or special systems. In this study, we aim at designing a core data model for those IACS/LPIS based on LAS. For this purpose, we make use of the ongoing standardization initiatives for LAS (Land Administration Domain Model: LADM) and IACS/LPIS (LPIS Core Model: LCM). The data model we propose in this study implies the collaboration between LADM and LCM and includes some extensions. Some basic issues with the collaboration model are discussed within this study: registration of farmers, land use rights and farming limitations, geometry/topology, temporal data management etc. For further explanation of the model structure, sample instance level diagrams illustrating some typical situations are also included.

Review of the Current State of UAV Regulations

UAVs—unmanned aerial vehicles—facilitate data acquisition at temporal and spatial scales that still remain unachievable for traditional remote sensing platforms. However, current legal frameworks that regulate UAVs present significant barriers to research and development. To highlight the importance, impact, and diversity of UAV regulations, this paper provides an exploratory investigation of UAV regulations on the global scale. For this, the methodological approach consists of a research synthesis of UAV regulations, including a thorough literature review and a comparative analysis of national regulatory frameworks. Similarities and contrasting elements in the various national UAV regulations are explored including their statuses from the perspectives of past, present, and future trends. Since the early 2000s, countries have gradually established national legal frameworks. Although all UAV regulations have one common goal—minimizing the risks to other airspace users and to both people and property on the ground—the results reveal distinct variations in all the compared variables. Furthermore, besides the clear presence of legal frameworks, market forces such as industry design standards and reliable information about UAVs as public goods are expected to shape future developments.

The land administration domain model (LADM) as the reference model for the Cyprus land information system (CLIS)

In this paper, the enhancement of the data model of the Cyprus land information system (CLIS), with the adoption of the land administration domain model (LADM) is examined. The CLIS was established in 1999, within the Department of Lands and Surveys, to support the operation of the Cyprus cadastral system and has met the majority of its initial set goals. It is however now broadly accepted that the CLIS should be improved and upgraded, and a new data model should be introduced to facilitate the manipulation and provision of data to internal and external users/ customers in a more effective way. The need to enhance the CLIS coincides with the introduction of the LADM, which is under development within the Technical Committee 211 of the International Organization for Standardization and identified as ISO 19152. The LADM provides an abstract, conceptual schema with three basic packages: parties (such as people and organisations), administrative rights, responsibilities and restrictions (such as property rights) and spatial units (such as parcels, buildings and networks), with the latter having one subpackage: surveying and spatial representation [6]. [Note: In this moment (January 2012), the LADM is at the development stage of Final Draft International Standard]. In this paper, the basic entities of the CLIS are presented and restructured, in a way to comply with the LADM. After analysing the characteristics of LADM, it is concluded that this is compatible with CLIS, and can be used as a data model framework for CLIS’s upgrade. Thus, the Cyprus country profile is proposed. The adoption of the LADM is a great opportunity for the Department of Lands and Surveys to introduce an International Organization for Standardization standard model, based on model driven architecture, and to gain all the benefits derived from such a movement. Such benefits include the improvement in the effectiveness and the efficiency of the current system and the expansion of the services provided by CLIS to the broader land administration system and to the Cyprus community. The new functionality includes: better structuring of the rights, responsibilities and restrictions (and related source documents); better fitting in the information infrastructure, both national (e.g. valuation, taxation, building, address and person registrations) and international (e.g. INSPIRE cadastral parcels); and future capabilities for representing three-dimensional spatial units (e.g. legal spaces related to apartment or utility infrastructure).

A modular standard for the cadastral domain: Application to the Portuguese Cadastre

Following recent worldwide developments and initiatives by FIG (Cadastre 2014) and UN, an object oriented, conceptual model for the Cadastral Domain, adapted to Portuguese Cadastre and related Real Estate Register is presented, based on a previously proposed standard. After a brief description of present Cadastral and Land Registration situation in Portugal, UML (Unified Modeling Language) literate modeling was used to describe the top level classes by using a structured mix of UML Class Diagrams and natural text. Important contributions of this paper are the evaluation of the FIG core cadastral model by applying it to Portugal. It turns out that a limited number of the classes of the core model are currently not needed (but some of them might be used in the future) and that other classes were added specifically for the situation in Portugal. This is anticipated use of the core model and in case similar patterns occurs in several countries, the new version of the core model should be adapted accordingly within the FIG. In addition to these static model aspects, Activity Diagrams were used to model dynamic behavior concerning a number of chosen Cadastral Update tasks. Currently, the dynamic aspects are not yet present in the FIG core cadastral model, but in case similar dynamic patterns occurs in several countries, then this should be added to the core model. (Notation: In this article, all class names appearing in the text are written in Italics, while the names of class methods are written in Bold Italics and names of attributes are in the in default text style. Where it exists a correspondence with the standard model, the original English name is referred within brackets.)

Neo-cadastres: innovative solution for land users without state based land rights, or just reflections of institutional isomorphism?

Abstract In many countries, authority for maintaining records of land ownership lies with national or state institutes, called ‘cadastres’ or ‘land registries’. The emergence of volunteered geographic information (VGI) and crowdsourcing potentially challenges this state based authority, enabling the construction of ‘neo’-cadastres (using the analogy of ‘neo’geography). Individual citizens can themselves map and record land tenure rights. This paper explores if and how VGI and crowdsourcing may redefine the state based cadastres and land registries, and the roles of land users who claim land rights outside of the state based institutions. Using theories of institutions and isomorphism we hypothesise that a parallel exists between emerging open systems and situations where no state-based cadastre exists: participants in both situations will position themselves to protect their interests. Three cases from Ghana, Canada, and Indonesia demonstrate how land users indicate their land tenure right boundaries based on personal views (the neo-cadastre), rather than on rules stipulated by a national authority (the traditional cadastre). In each case land users root their behaviour partly in local dependency relations and social advocacy networks. These locally embedded rules may not necessarily coincide with hierarchical institutional relations. Even in participatory adjudication activities conducted under the authority of national cadastres, land users are not completely free in providing their land boundaries. Instead, they adhere to certain locally embedded microsocial conventions. We conclude that VGI and crowdsourced based neo-cadastres will likely redefine, from passive to active, the roles of land users in cadastres. This creates an opportunity for citizens, but also a potential risk. Where implicit rules of the neo-cadastre do not co-evolve with traditional cadastral institutions, conflicts of land information and access to land may emerge. Neo-cadastres will be an artefact of this dissatisfaction, and may reflect new directions for cadastral institutions. Neo-cadastres will not be a direct trigger for wider cadastral change, but a piece of evidence that change and resistance are occurring.

Geo shared licences : a base for better access to public sector geoinformation for value-added resellers in Europe

In a digital age public sector geoinformation (PSGI) is potentially a vital link in the added-value chain. Yet private sector value-added resellers (VARs) still face a number of barriers to using PSGI. Price is only one impediment. The complexity of licences and restrictive licence conditions of PSGI may be an even bigger obstacle. Especially when combining different datasets, VARs can face a quagmire of conflicting licence conditions. Batty (2006 Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 33 163–164) called for research that would stimulate value-added use of PSGI. However, inconsistent and intransparent licence conditions for PSGI are among the biggest obstacles of PSGI for VARs. This paper explores the current PSGI licences to assess the actual restrictions and how current obstacles can be levelled. The Creative Commons licensing concept was explored and adapted to make it suitable for licensing PSGI. The resulting concept of Geo Shared licences is a means to harmonise licence conditions for PSGI. Our research shows that the Geo Shared concept can be a valuable contribution to further harmonisation of PSGI licences and thus development of value-added chains. Furthermore, development of geographic information infrastructures will also be stimulated. Similarly, the concept can be considered as a serious option within the Infrastructure of Spatial Information for Europe (INSPIRE), as a way towards transparent harmonised licences in Europe and beyond.

The impact of the European privacy regime on location technology development

Location technology allows for the tracking and tracing of individuals. Developments in location technology allow for increasing levels of detail to keep an eye on ones private life. There are concerns that the privacy awareness among citizens and privacy legislation hinders the success and further development of these technologies. This article assesses the extent to which European privacy legislation blocks location technology development. This is accomplished through a detailed analysis of the Dutch legal framework and an overall review of the European legal framework for protecting individuals privacy versus private sector use of location information and public sector use in the intelligence services. The analysis shows that privacy legislation puts users of terminal devices in control of the decision if and when his location information may be used by private sector location-based services providers. Users often seem willing to allow this, judging by the increase in available location-based services. Privacy legislation is not as protective regarding the use for law enforcement and secret intelligence purposes: privacy of mobile device users may be intruded for these purposes. Certainly after 9/11, developments in law are directed at increasing the mandates of law enforcement and intelligence services. Therefore, the location technology industry is likely to prosper from the investments of the public intelligence sector. For both privacy law legislating private sector use of location-based services and legislation for (secret) public sector use, this article shows that the European privacy regime does not endanger further location technology development.

A socio-spatial methodology for evaluating urban land governance: the case of informal settlements

Urban land has social and spatial dimensions. Governance of urban land should consider these dimensions. Existing methods of evaluating land governance tend to focus on the social dimensions: the spatial dimensions are considered less. A socio-spatial approach developed here is argued to fill this gap. This research supposes that informal settlements can be used to understand urban land governance. A conceptual framework that links urban land governance, socio-spatial dimensions and informal settlements is developed and tested through a case study. The results show that the socio-spatial methodology improved understanding of equity, efficiency and transparency as compared with the existing approaches which are solely based on poor-quality and unreliable data. This methodology can be used beyond informal settlements such as understanding infrastructural delivery and quality, mapping potential conflict areas and urban land uses where governance plays a great role. Overall, the socio-spatial methodology enabled an all-encompassing evaluation of urban land governance.