J. Allen Watson

Computers in Early Education: Issues Put to Rest, Theoretical Links to Sound Practice, and the Potential Contribution of Microworlds

Over the years, since computers were first introduced to early childhood education, much debate and research has centered on the issue of appropriateness. In spite of recent gains in understanding, the debate rages on. The purpose of this article is threefold. First, research evidence is presented taking issue with a number of the most often cited reasons for not including computers in preschool environments. Secondly, a theoretical base for computer use in early childhood is developed which includes: Papert, Piaget, Erikson, and competence development. Finally, direction for software development is offered through review and description of successful microworld programs. It is concluded that the microcomputer, when coupled with appropriate software, has the potential to empower the development of young children.

The Effects of Microcomputers on Young Children: An Examination of Free-Play Choices, Sex Differences, and Social Interactions

A microcomputer was inserted into two preschool classrooms—one large and one small—to examine the effects on childrens free-play choices and social interactions. Sex differences were also examined. In both classrooms, the introduction of the microcomputer initially disrupted free-play activity patterns; over time, however, most free-play areas returned to baseline levels. Sex differences were apparent in both classrooms. In the large classroom, boys spent significantly more time at the microcomputer than girls. In the small classroom, there was a trend for girls to spend more time at the microcomputer than boys. Social interactions at the microcomputer were similar to interactions in other play areas of the two classrooms. Higher levels of positive social behaviors at the microcomputer compared to other play areas were not found in either classroom.

The Computer Gender Gap: Children's Attitudes, Performance and Socialization.

A review of research studies on gender differences in computer-based education revealed significant discrepancies between equality of access and performance outcomes for female and male users. Beginning during preschool years, males consistently spend more time than females in computing activities. For males, such concentrated involvement translates into higher achievement scores in computer-based technology in both academic and career settings. The outcome for females is an inequitable chance to acquire the same technological skill levels as males. An analysis of research findings reveals that social interactions among children, their families and schools can affect attitudes and motivation of children in very different ways according to gender. Eighteen unique factors which have a significant impact on the formation of this discrepancy are identified. Recommendations for further research studies to examine and bridge the existing technological gender gap are made.

The significance of adult storybook reading styles on the development of young children's emergent reading

Abstract Past research has failed to adequately consider the relationships between both the parent interaction styles and teacher interaction styles on young childrens emergent reading development. The present study examined to what extent teacher and parent interaction styles during storybook reading predict emergent reading level. Volunteer subjects were 30 kindergarten children (18 girls and 12 boys), their parents, and teachers. Transcribed audio‐taped sessions were used to measure adult interaction style during storybook reading to the child. Children were audio‐taped while attempting to read the storybook to the investigator. Transcriptions of these sessions were used to rate emergent reading level using the emergent reading continuum developed by Sulzby (1985). Independent variables were: (a) percentage of high cognitive demands, (b) total number of cognitive demands, (c) number of storybook sessions per week, and (d) age the parent began reading to their child. No confounding effects on the depen...

Comprehension Monitoring, Stylistic Differences, Pre-Math Knowledge, and Transfer: A Comprehensive Pre-Math/Spatial Development Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) and Logo Curriculum Designed to Test their Effects

A comprehensive computer curriculum designed to teach pre-math/spatial skills was used to examine the performance of preschool children using computer-assisted instruction (CAI) and Logo software. Forty preschool children received approximately 80 percent of pre-math/spatial instruction via computer and approximately 20 percent via teacher instruction. The following pretest/posttest measures were used to assess gains in skill: pre-math knowledge (TEMA), comprehension monitoring (Flavell scale), spatial ability (color identification and pointing), and ability to transfer (mazes). Overall, field independent (FI) and field dependent (FD) children did not perform significantly different from each other on posttest measures. Reflective (Ref) children performed significantly better than impulsive (Imp) children on several measures including fewer trials on a maze task, more correct answers on color and color/direction questions, and less time on color/direction questions. Both FI/FD and Ref/Imp groups improved performance from pretest to posttest and made gains in pre-math knowledge and comprehension monitoring. Key factors of the computer instructional method are discussed.

Educational issues concerning young children and microcomputers: Lego with logo?

There is currently considerable disagreement among educators as to whether or not microcomputers should be a part of preschool education. The debate is intense with few educators suggesting a position predicated on current research or a period of experimental testing Four issues are discussed in this article, cognitive theory/microcomputers, social isolation and social interactions, real life experiences, and the hurried child. Past literature is cited for each issue which shows the microcomputer either as monster or messiah. We enter the debate midway between these two extreems and predicate our arguments on more recent research and theory. Conclusions are drawn for each issue and a recommendation is made for an extended period of testing before educators make pedagogical decisions.

Logo Mastery and Spatial Problem-Solving by Young Children: Effects of Logo Language Training, Route-Strategy Training, and Learning Styles on Immediate Learning and Transfer

This study examines childrens abilities 1) to learn to program with a single keystroke, ten command Logo system enabling them to produce multiple command sequences to solve on-screen problems, 2) to learn two new strategies (direct and indirect route strategies) requiring the use of two levels of programming difficulty measured via average times, keystrokes, and errors, 3) to transfer screen-based Logo training to the solution of spatial problems in another learning setting, and 4) to demonstrate whether there are any individual differences in the effectiveness of Logo learning for children who have different learning orientations (field independent versus field dependent and/or reflective versus impulsive). Twenty-four four- and five-year-old children served as subjects in the study. Data from the study showed: 1) that mastery of the Logo language is not a necessary condition for young children to think and problem-solve within a Logo environment, 2) that successful problem-solving within a Logo environment is predicated on a childs use of an age-appropriate Logo programming system, 3) that even very young children can be taught spatial-conceptual strategies with which to operate within a Logo environment, 4) that young children can transfer Logo-environment knowledge to other problem-solving settings, and 5) that field independent children seem to have a slight advantage both in their initial learning of Logo and in their transfer of Logo learning to another problem-solving setting. Some of the present results are interpreted according to Watson and Buschs model of the development of Logo programming and problem-solving skills in children [1].

Computer Presentational Features for Young Children's Preferential Selection and Recall of Information.

Preschool childrens preferential selection and recall of words presented in a computer microworld was assessed as a function of action and sound. Forty preschoolers, equally distributed by sex, were randomly assigned to one of four versions of a microworld. Within each version, twenty-four sprite objects were randomly assigned properties of action and sound. The design was counterbalanced so that across the four versions, each sprite assumed all possible factorial combinations of action and sound. As expected, children preferentially selected and later recalled more words presented with action than words presented without action. Although children selected sounds, sounds interfered with childrens recall of linguistic information. Results support an action superiority hypothesis and an auditory interference hypothesis. The practical application is to use action as an integral component of educational computer software designed for young children.

Cognitive Style and the Selection of Logo Problem-Solving Strategies by Young Black Children.

The finding that field-independent individuals demonstrate superior problem-solving ability on computer programming tasks is well-documented in the literature. However, the ease with which preschool children acquire computer skills is less clear. There is conflicting evidence regarding whether or not young children can learn to program. The purpose of this study was to examine problem-solving strategies selected by stylistically different groups of minority (black) preschool children taught via a Logo computer curriculum using an age-appropriate format. Findings revealed that all children learned to program successfully with training at an age-appropriate level. Findings did not support the variety of cognitive style differences predicted for field-independent versus field-independent children. Implications for future training methods with software packages are discussed.

Special Education Technologies for Young Children: Present and Future Learning Scenarios with Related Research Literature:

The following article surveys the prospects for computer usage in special education by developing three instructional scenarios (present actual, present possible, and future), reviewing pertinent research, and noting important trends in hardware development.