J. C. Wofford

Meta-Analysis of the Antecedents of Personal Goal Level and of the Antecedents and Consequences of Goal Commitment

Meta-analyses were conducted to examine the antecedents of personal goal level, and the antecedents and consequences of goal commitment based on 78 goal-setting studies. Meta-analyses of the antecedents of personal goal level indicated that prior performance and ability were significantly related to personal goals whereas knowledge of results had a marginally significant relationship with personal goal level. The relationships of three antecedent variables with goal commitment were found to be statistically significant (i.e., self-efficacy, expectancy of goal attainment, and task difficulty), whereas task complexity had a marginally significant relationship with goal commitment. The results of the meta-analyses on the consequences of goal commitment showed goal commitment to significantly affect goal achievement. A model was developed that integrated the results of the meta-analyses with conceptually derived variables and relationships.

Measuring motive imagery contained in the vision statement

Abstract Vision is a central concept in charismatic/transformational leadership theory and has been shown to impact performance. However, empirical studies have coded vision statements in noncomparable ways. To measure the content of vision statements, the present study demonstrates the application of the motive coding methodology developed by McClelland and Winter. Using two independent samples of vision statements, we further demonstrate the applicability of this methodology by testing for expected relationships between vision statements and individual, unit, and organizational performance. Half of the expected relationships yielded significant results. Nevertheless, motive imagery measures yielded reliable scores, were feasible to apply, and provided relevant measures of vision statement content. This methodology has the potential to allow researchers to test charismatic/transformational leadership theory in new ways and to provide leaders with concrete guidance about the content of their vision statements. Considerations for future researchers and caveats are presented.

A laboratory experiment testing the antecedents of leader cognitions

A laboratory experiment was conducted to test relationships between leadership style, feedback on subordinate performance within the context of either the vision or goals of the organization, and leader cognitions representing a modified version of Wofford and Goodwins (1994) cognitive processing model of leadership. The results indicated that: (1) positive feedback leads to the access of transformational cognitions, whereas negative feedback leads to the access of transactional cognitions; (2) negative feedback about subordinate performance causes transformational leaders to access transactional cognitions in response to subordinates; (3) the relationship between transformational leadership behavior and transformational cognitions is strengthened when feedback received about subordinates is vision-related compared to feedback that is goal-related; and (4) the relationship between transactional leadership behavior and transactional cognitions is strengthened when feedback received is goal-related compared to feedback that is vision-related. Limitations and future research directions are discussed. Copyright

Cognitive-affective stress propensity: a field study

A cognitive-affective stress propensity model was examined using field study data. Structural equation models analyses tested hypothesized and alternate models to determine their goodness-of-fit with the data. The results supported a direct relationship between stress propensity and strain, and an indirect, mediated relationship between stress propensity and strain through a subjective stress construct. In addition, stress propensity was found to moderate the relationships of experienced negative affect with somatic and with psychological strain, and with one of three measures of subjective stress. Implications of the results for research and practice are discussed. Copyright

Cognitive-affective stress response: effects of individual stress propensity on physiological and psychological indicators of strain.

The purpose of this study was to define further the role of individual stress propensity in physiological arousal and subsequent subjective stress and strain by measuring stress-induced reactivity in a laboratory setting. Individual predisposition to stress is conceptualized as a latent construct, cognitive–affective stress propensity, that is manifested as multiple trait indicators, e.g., negative affectivity, anger-irritability, and negative self-esteem. For 80 undergraduates experimental treatments were two stressors, time pressure and performance feedback. Physiological arousal indices included skin temperature, blood volume, and electromyographic activity. Results provide some support for the hypotheses that this propensity moderates the relationships between stressor and physiological arousal and between physiological arousal and subjective stress and strain.

A cognitive-affective approach to understanding individual differences in stress propensity and resultant strain.

The cognitive-affective model of the stress response provides a framework for making inferences about individual differences in stress propensity and levels of resultant strain. A new cognitive-affective conceptualization provides a means of analyzing mediating processes affecting psychological and physiological reactions to stressors. The model also facilitates examination and understanding of a latent cognitive-affective stress propensity construct that moderates the relationships between stressors and strain. Propositions are presented with the intention of stimulating further research.

Cognitive processes, strain, and stress: Gender differences in stress propensity indicators

This study examined a model of stress response that includes a stress propensity construct, a subjective stress construct, and a strain construct. Using structural equation models (SEM) analysis, this model provided a good fit with the data. SEM analysis of gender differences indicated that the path coefficients for the relationships between the stress propensity construct with subjective stress were higher for women than for men. Factor loadings for two of the six indicators of the stress propensity construct also differed between genders. The implications of these findings for understanding stress-related constructs and gender differences are discussed.

Experimental Tests of the Goal-Energy-Effort Requirement Theory of Work Motivation

Three laboratory experiments were conducted to test eight hypotheses derived from the Goal-Energy-Effort Requirement Theory of Work Motivation. Each of the hypotheses tested in these experiments was supported. Increases in Task Goal Level, in Perceived Effort Requirement, in Energy Potential, and in Task Goal Specificity were found to result in increases in task performance. Increases in Task Goal Commitment increased the closeness of the performance level to the Task Goal Level. Statistically significant interactions were not found among the independent variables. In general, the experimental results support the hypotheses. The implications of the results for the manager are briefly discussed.

Cognitive-affective stress propensity: A confirmatory factor analysis of stress propensity measures

Abstract A cognitive-affective stress propensity (CASP) construct is used to integrate previous findings regarding individual differences in experienced stress and resultant strain. A confirmatory factor analysis determined the structure of the CASP construct using a one factor model. This model and alternative models of factor structure contain two additional new constructs, psychological magnification and cognitive-affective connectivity. These two variables, and five trait variables previously identified as moderators in stress propensity research, were used in the analysis. Results show the one factor model to fit the data better than alternative models, thus supporting the notion of a latent construct (CASP).

The linkages of cognitive processes, stress propensity, affect, and strain: experimental test of a cognitive model of the stress response

This research examined a model of the stress response that includes cognitive-affective stress propensity, cognitive-affective processes, experienced affective reactions, subjective stress, and strain constructs. Using partial least squares analysis, this model was found to provide a good fit with the data. Moderated multiple regression analyses found support for the hypothesized moderating effects of individual stress propensity on the relationships of stressors with cognitive-affective processes. The research and practical implications of these findings are discussed.