J. Marianne Riksen-Walraven

A Randomized Controlled Trial of a Home-Visiting Intervention Aimed at Preventing Relationship Problems in Depressed Mothers and Their Infants.

This study examined the effect of a mother-baby intervention on the quality of mother-child interaction, infant-mother attachment security, and infant socioemotional functioning in a group of depressed mothers with infants aged 1-12 months. A randomized controlled trial compared an experimental group (n = 35) receiving the intervention (8-10 home visits) with a control group (n = 36) receiving parenting support by telephone. There were assessments pre, post, and follow-up after 6 months. The intervention had positive effects on the quality of mother-infant interaction. Infants in the experimental group had higher scores for attachment security and for one aspect of socioemotional functioning, namely, competence. The intervention proved successful in preventing deterioration of the quality of mother-child interaction.

Effects of Caregiver Behavior On Habituation Rate And Self Efficacy In Infants.

A model for cognitive development and the development of self-efficacy in infancy was proposed. On the basis of learning-theoretical principles it was hypothesized that (a) an infants rate of habituation to visual stimuli is a function of the amount of stimulation provided by its primary caregiver, and (b) the strength of an infants exploratory behavior and its ability to analyse contingencies between its acts and their effects is a function of the responsiveness of the caregiver towards the infant. The subjects were 100 ninemonth-old infants from working-class families with their primary caregivers. The effects of two different intervention programs were examined, one program aiming at heightening the caregivers responsiveness towards the infant, the second at enhancing the amount of stimulation provided to the infant. The programs were carried out by the caregivers for a period of three months. The proposed model was confirmed by the findings.

Multiple Determinants of Externalizing Behavior in 5-Year-Olds: A Longitudinal Model.

In a community sample of 116 children, assessments of parent-child interaction, parent-child attachment, and various parental, child, and contextual characteristics at 15 and 28 months and at age 5 were used to predict externalizing behavior at age 5, as rated by parents and teachers. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis and path analysis yielded a significant longitudinal model for the prediction of age 5 externalizing behavior, with independent contributions from the following predictors: child sex, partner support reported by the caregiver, disorganized infant-parent attachment at 15 months, child anger proneness at 28 months, and one of the two parent-child interaction factors observed at 28 months, namely negative parent-child interactions. The other, i.e., a lack of effective guidance, predicted externalizing problems only in highly anger-prone children. Furthermore, mediated pathways of influence were found for the parent-child interaction at 15 months (via disorganized attachment) and parental ego-resiliency (via negative parent-child interaction at 28 months).

Heterogeneity among Peer-Rejected Boys across Middle Childhood: Developmental Pathways of Social Behavior.

The purpose of this longitudinal study was to identify subgroups of rejected boys with different developmental pathways of aggression and prosocial behavior across the elementary school years. Peer, teacher, and parent reports and behavior observations yielded composite scores for aggression and prosocial behavior at 3 measurement waves. A cluster analysis with these composites on 87 initially rejected boys identified 4 subgroups with different developmental pathways of prosocial behavior and aggression that were associated with different patterns of sociometric acceptance and rejection over time and with social emotional adjustment in the last measurement wave. Changes in acceptance and rejection tend to precede changes in aggression and prosocial behavior. Cluster differences on social emotional adjustment indicators converged into I moderately discriminating factor, Social Maladaptation in Peer-Oriented Behavior.

A model-based intervention for depressed mothers and their infants

Many studies have reported on the adverse effects of maternal depression on offspring. Infants of depressed mothers are found to be more likely at risk to develop mental and socioemotional problems. In this study, an early intervention program is presented that aims to improve the interaction between depressed mothers and their infants to prevent developmental problems in the children. The program has recently been introduced in the Dutch Community Mental Health Centers as part of a national multicomponent program to reduce the risk of psychiatric and social problems in the offspring of parents with a mental disorder. The intervention for depressed mothers with babies is based on a transactional model in which the mother-child interaction plays a key role in explaining the development of socioemotional problems in the children. The model as discussed in the first part of this article addresses a range of evidenced-based parental, child, and contextual risk factors that effect the quality of the interactions between depressed mothers and their infants and that contribute to both vulnerability and resilience of the children during later childhood and adolescence. ©2005 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health.

Maternal Sensitivity and Infant Attachment Security in Japan: A Longitudinal Study:

In this study we examined the relation between maternal sensitivity and child attachment security, one of the core propositions of attachment theory, in a Japanese sample. Attachment security was assessed with the Attachment Q-Sort at the ages of 14 and 24 months. At the same ages, ratings were obtained for the mothers’ sensitivity in interactions with their children. The expected significant relationship between maternal sensitivity and child security was found both at 14 and 24 months. Maternal sensitivity showed moderate stability between the two ages. LISREL analysis showed that the correlation between maternal sensitivity and infant security at 24 months is not fully explained by the correlation between sensitivity and security 10 months earlier. This indicates that maternal sensitivity continues to play a significant role in the development of a secure attachment relationship in the second year of life.

Cortisol in the first year of life: Normative values and intra-individual variability

INTRODUCTION Many studies have incorporated cortisol measurements when studying infant development, but descriptions of normal development of basal cortisol levels in large study populations are scarce. The present study aimed to establish norm values for infant basal cortisol levels and to examine the development of intra-individual variability in the first year of life. METHODS More than 2500 cortisol samples were collected in 300 infants at three different ages. At each age four 1100h samples were collected to determine average cortisol levels and intra-individual variability. The development of basal cortisol levels and intra-individual variability was analyzed with multilevel growth curve modeling. RESULTS Norm tables with 90 and 95% intervals are presented. Basal cortisol levels decreased gradually over the year. Intra-individual variability was relatively large and stable in the first half year but decreased towards the end of the year. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study will aid researchers in evaluating cortisol data collected in early infancy. It also underscores the importance of taking intra-individual cortisol variability into account in studies involving infants.

Child Care in The Netherlands: Trends in Quality Over the Years 1995-2005

The authors assessed the quality of child care in a representative national sample of 42 child-care centers in the Netherlands and compared it with the quality of care that researchers have found using similar samples in 1995 (M. H. van IJzendoorn, L. W. C. Tavecchio, G. J. J. M. Stams, M. J. E. Verhoeven, & E. J. Reiling, 1998) and 2001 (M. J. J. M. Gevers Deynoot-Schaub & J. M. A. Riksen-Walraven, 2005). In the present study, results showed a low level of overall process quality for the 2005 sample, measured by the Infant/Toddler Environment Rating Scale-Revised (T. Harms, D. Cryer, & R. M. Clifford, 2003) and the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale-Revised (T. Harms, R. M. Clifford, & D. Cryer, 1998). The present authors found a significant decline in process quality in comparison with the 1995 and 2001 findings. They concluded that, from an international perspective, the Netherlands has lost its leading position in child-care quality compared with that from 10 years ago.

Associations between maternal prenatal cortisol concentrations and child outcomes: A systematic review

A frequently proposed mechanism underlying the link between maternal prenatal stress/anxiety and child outcomes is heightened concentrations of maternal cortisol. In this systematic review, empirical findings on associations between maternal prenatal cortisol concentrations and child outcomes (physical/health, cognitive/motor, psychological/behavioral, and cortisol) are summarized. The number of empirical studies that find significant associations between maternal prenatal cortisol and child outcomes is small, but the majority of the studies that do find associations show that maternal cortisol is related to altered child outcomes (e.g. more physical/health problems, lower cognitive/motor development, more psychological/behavioral problems, and higher child cortisol concentrations). Inspection of the studies reveals possible critical gestational periods for maternal cortisol to affect different child outcomes. The heterogeneity in study designs and cortisol assessment methods makes drawing strong conclusions premature. However, the fact that most studies did not find significant associations suggests that maternal cortisol may not to be the sole or even main underlying mechanism in the relation between maternal prenatal stress/anxiety and child outcomes. Limitations of the reviewed studies are discussed, and directions for future research and reporting strategies are provided.

Peer rejection and HPA activity in middle childhood: Friendship makes a difference

Exclusion and victimization by classmates were related to levels and diurnal change in cortisol in 97 fourth graders (53% boys, M = 9.3 years). Number and quality of friendships were considered as moderators. Salivary cortisol was collected 5 times daily on 2 school days. Excluded children had elevated cortisol levels at school and a flattened diurnal cortisol curve, suggesting hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis dysregulation. This effect was weaker for children with more friends or better friendships. Victimization was not associated with cortisol level or change. The results demonstrate the role of HPA activity in peer group processes and indicate that group and dyadic factors interact in predicting stress in the peer group.