J.R. Pijpers

Anxiety–performance relationships in climbing: a process-oriented approach

Abstract Objectives : Two experiments were conducted to investigate manifestations of anxiety at the subjective, physiological, and behavioural level of analysis. Design : In Experiment 1 we investigated the manifestations of state anxiety at the first two levels by comparing low- and high-anxiety conditions during climbing. In Experiment 2 we explored behavioural differences under these conditions. Methods : We manipulated anxiety by using a climbing wall with routes defined at different heights (low and high). Participants were 13 and 17 novice climbers in Experiments 1 and 2, respectively (ages 19–30 years). We measured self-reported state anxiety, heart rate (Experiments 1 and 2), blood lactate concentration and muscle fatigue (Experiment 1), and climbing time and fluency of movements (Experiment 2). Results : At the level of subjective experience we found that when novices climbed a route high on a climbing wall they reported significantly more anxiety than when they traversed an identical route low on the climbing wall. At the physiological level, they exhibited significantly higher heart rates, more muscle fatigue, and higher blood lactate concentrations. The results of Experiment 2 showed that state anxiety also affected participants’ movement behaviour, which was evidenced by an increased geometric index of entropy and by longer climbing times. Conclusions : Results indicated that anxiety indeed manifested itself at three levels. A possible explanation for the effects of anxiety that is also found in the literature is that a temporary regress may occur to a movement execution that is associated with earlier stages of motor learning.

Anxiety-induced changes in movement behaviour during the execution of a complex whole-body task

We investigated the impact of anxiety on movement behaviour during the execution of a complex perceptual-motor task. Masters’ (1992) conscious processing hypothesis suggests that under pressure an inward focus of attention occurs, resulting in more conscious control of the movement execution of well-learned skills. The conscious processes interfere with automatic task execution hereby inducing performance decrements. Recent empirical support for the hypothesis has focused on the effects of pressure on end performance. It has not been tested so far whether the changes in performance are also accompanied by changes in movement execution that would be expected following Masters’ hypothesis. In the current study we tested the effects of anxiety on climbing movements on a climbing wall. Two identical traverses at different heights on a climbing wall provided different anxiety conditions. In line with the conscious processing hypothesis we found that anxiety had a significant effect on participants’ movement behaviour evidenced by increases in climbing time and the number of explorative movements (Experiments 1 and 2) and by longer grasping of the holds and slower movements (Experiment 2). These results provide additional support for the conscious processing hypothesis and insight into the relation between anxiety, performance, and movement behaviour.

The role of anxiety in perceiving and realizing affordances

Three experiments were conducted to examine the role of anxiety in perceiving and realizing affordances in wall climbing. Identical traverses were situated high and low on a climbing wall to manipulate anxiety. In Experiment 1, participants judged their maximal overhead reachability and performed maximal reaches on the climbing wall. Anxiety was found to reduce both perceived and actual maximal reaching height. In Experiment 2, participants climbed from right to left and back again on the high and low traverses, which now entailed an abundance of holds. Consistent with the reduction of perceived and actual maximal reaching height found in Experiment 1, anxiety led to the use of more holds. Finally, in Experiment 3, points of light were sequentially projected around the participants while they were climbing to measure attention. As participants detected fewer lights in the high-anxiety condition, it was concluded that anxiety narrowed attention. In general, the results underscored that the actors emotional state plays an important role in perceiving and realizing affordances and that the perception of affordances changes as the accompanying action capabilities change.

The influence of anxiety on action-specific perception

Abstract Recent empirical research suggests that performance modulates perception. For example, baseball players judge the ball to be bigger when performing well as compared to when performing less successfully. Yet, the underlying processes that mediate the emergence of action-specific effects on perception are still largely unknown. To this end, we aimed to examine the impact of anxiety on the action-specific influence on perception as anxiety has been shown to affect both performance and perception. Thirty participants threw darts at a circle-shaped target and were then asked to judge the size of the target. The task was performed under conditions of low and high anxiety. Results replicated previously reported action-specific effects on perception under levels of low anxiety. However, these effects vanished in the high anxiety condition. Results seem to suggest that anxiety has a direct influence on the relation between performance and perception. Attentional control theory is discussed to explain the current findings.

Close, and a Cigar!—Why Size Perception Relates to Performance

In baseball batting, golf putting, and dart throwing, successful players estimate the size of the target object to be bigger than their less successful counterparts. While more and more empirical evidence is accumulated supporting the existence of this intriguing phenomenon, an explanation of the processes underpinning this effect remains to be provided. Here, we re-analysed data from a dart throwing experiment to examine the proposal—recently put forward by Proffitt and Linkenauger (in press)—that the variability in target-related performance may serve as a scaling metric for perceived target size which may explain why actors who perform consistently close to the target perceive the target to be bigger. Our results confirm that less variability in target-related performance in darts relates to perceiving the target as being bigger, thereby providing initial support for Proffitt and Linkenaugers proposal.

Chapter 11 The Control of Catching

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the control of catching. For successful catching access to temporal and spatial information sources is a sine qua non. In this Chapter the means by which temporal and spatial information become available to catchers is discussed and elaborated using concepts and empirical work from both an information-processing and an ecological psychological perspective. Successful one-handed catching, for example, demands conformity to highly constrained spatio-temporal requirements, namely, placing the hand, at the right moment, at the required spatial location and closing the fingers around the ball at the appropriate moment in time. A failure to meet these requirements gives rise to two kinds of error—temporal and spatial. Earlier experiments on catching behavior—reflecting the theoretical frameworks then current—has been conducted within an information-processing framework. In terms of catching behavior, the variable most fully addressed, within such a framework, is viewing time—its necessary duration and most appropriate moment of occurrence.

Professional Development in Sport Psychology: Relating Learning Experiences to Learning Outcomes

To enhance the training of sport psychology consultants, it is important to know which learning experiences are useful for which components of professional development. We interviewed 15 novice consultants on their learning experiences related to 13 different topics. Traditional learning experiences (e.g., courses, teachers) were related to the development of practical know-how. Learning from others (e.g., peers, colleagues) was related to professional development (i.e., dealing with issues, challenges, and dilemmas that occur in sport psychology practice). Practical experience and reflective activities were related to both know-how and professional development. These results can be used to shape effective sport psychology education.

Assessing competence in sport psychology: An action research account

ABSTRACT Competent practice in sport psychology is of utmost importance for the professional status of the field, and hence proper assessment of competence for sport psychology practice is needed. We describe three cycles of action research to improve the assessment of competence in a sport psychology education program. The cycles were directed at (a) empowering supervisors in their assessing role, (b) improving the assessment checklist, and (c) investigating an alternative assessment method. Although challenges remain (e.g., improve the still low interrater reliability), the action research has contributed to an improved quality and higher acceptability of the assessment in the education program.