J. Richard Simon

The effects of an irrelevant directional cue on human information processing

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the effects of an irrelevant directional cue on human information processing. A fundamental concern in cognitive psychology and in human factors engineering is to understand the factors that affect the speed of translating information from a display into an appropriate control action. A series of related experiments demonstrate that the location of a stimulus provides an irrelevant directional cue that affects the time required to process the meaning of the stimulus. The reaction time data have revealed that the effect was not because of any simple isomorphic association between ear stimulated and ipsilateral hand. The same command ear stimulated interaction has also occurred for movement time. It is found that movements to the right are faster when the right command is heard in the right ear than when it is heard in the left ear, and, similarly, movements to the left are faster when the left command is heard in the left ear than when it is heard in the right ear. The Simon effect with visual displays is also elaborated in the chapter.

EFFECT OF CONFLICTING CUES ON INFORMATION PROCESSING: THE 'STROOP EFFECT' VS. THE 'SIMON EFFECT' *

This study examined the relationship between two sources of interference in human information processing: the Stroop effect and the Simon effect. Forty subjects pressed a left- or right-hand key in response to a Stroop color word located on the left or right side of a screen. For one group, ink color was the relevant cue and, for another group, word meaning was the relevant cue. Independent variables were: congruence, i.e., agreement or lack thereof between the ink color and meaning of the Stroop word; spatial correspondence, i.e., agreement or lack thereof between the location of the Stroop word and the location of the key used to make the response; and stimulus duration, i.e., 400 or 100 ms. Each of these variables had a significant effect on RT, and there were no significant interactions. According to Sternbergs additive-factor logic, these findings suggest that the Stroop effect (congruence) and the Simon effect (spatial correspondence) involve separate stages of processing. If one assumes that manipulation of stimulus duration effects the encoding stage, then results also suggest that neither the Stroop effect nor the Simon effect involves the stimulus encoding stage.

Effect of compatibility of S-R mapping on reactions toward the stimulus source

Abstract This research was concerned with separating the effects of three varieties of S-R compatibility: reactions toward the stimulus source, compatibility of S-R mapping, and display-control arrangement correspondence. In experiments 1 and 2, subjects pressed a green or red key located on the left and right in response to the onset of a green or red stimulus presented in a left or right window. Half of the subjects pressed the key which corresponded to the color of the stimulus (compatible S-R mapping) while the other half pressed the alternate colored key (incompatible S-R mapping). In the compatible mapping task, reactions were faster when location of stimulus and response corresponded than when they did not while, in the incompatible task, reactions were faster when location of stimulus and response did not correspond. This apparent reversal in the tendency to react toward the stimulus source was attributed to display- control arrangement correspondence rather than to logical recoding of the directional cue. Experiment 3 established that faster reactions toward the stimulus source occured only under compatible mapping instructions.

The effect of an irrelevant directional cue on choice reaction time: Duration of the phenomenon and its relation to stages of processing

Two experimental paradigms were used to investigate the interference which occurs in a choice RT task when the source of a stimulus does not correspond with its meaning. In one paradigm, subjects were instructed to delay executing their response to a red or green light until they heard a go signal which was presented 0, 150,250, or 350 msec after the light. In the other paradigm, subjects translated the pitch of a tone into an appropriate keypress response. For some groups, the stimulus response connections were specified prior to or simultaneously with the presentation of the stimulus tone, while, for other groups, the labeling of the response keys followed the onset of the tone. Results indicated that irrelevant directional cues produce interference which affects the response selection stage and persists for approximately 250 msec

CHOICE REACTION TIME AS A FUNCTION OF ANGULAR STIMULUS-RESPONSE CORRESPONDENCE AND AGE

This study was concerned with the effect of varying the angular orientation of a display on the choice reaction times of two age groups ; a younger group ranging in age from 20 to 30 and an older g...

Effects of S-R mapping and response modality on performance in a Stroop Task

Forty subjects performed a choice reaction time task in which the stimulus was the word Red or Green printed in either red or green ink. Subjects responded verbally in one block of trials and by key pressing in another block. For one group, ink color was the relevant cue, and for another group, the word was the relevant cue. Half of the subjects in each group were instructed to make the response that corresponded to the relevant cue (compatible S-R [stimulus-response] mapping); the other half were instructed to make the response that did not correspond (incompatible S-R mapping). In general, subjects who performed under compatible S-R mapping instructions reacted faster when the irrelevant cue corresponded to the response than when it did not. In contrast, subjects show performed under incompatible S-R mapping instructions reacted faster when there was a lack of correspondence between the irrelevant cue and the response than when there was correspondence. Results were consistent with a notion of logical recoding; that is, that instructing subjects to recode the relevant cue into the alternate color may have caused them to recode the irrelevant cue in the same logical manner. Results might also be interpreted to suggest that the Stroop effect is related to congruence between the relevant and the irrelevant cues rather than to correspondence between the irrelevant cue and the response.

The effect of irrelevant cues on 'same-different' judgments in a sequential information processing task

Abstract Two experiments were performed to test the effect of irrelevant stimulus attributes on retrieval time for a relevant stimulus attribute. Subjects saw a pair of colored shapes presented sequentially; the second of the pair was the probe. In experiment 1, color (red, green, or yellow) was the relevant stimulus attribute and shape (circle, square, or triangle) was the irrelevant attribute. In experiment 2, shape was the relevant attribute and stimulus color was the irrelevant attribute. Subjects pressed a ‘Same’ key if the relevant attributes of the stimulus and probe were the same and a ‘Different’ key if the relevant attributes of the stimulus and probe were different. Same and different responses were affected differently by the congruence or lack of congruence between the irrelevant attributes of the stimulus and probe. Same responses were faster when the irrelevant attributes of stimulus and probe were congruent, and different responses tended to be faster when the irrelevant attributes of stimulus and probe were incongruent.

Effect of irrelevant information on the processing of relevant information: Facilitation and/or interference? The influence of experimental design

Previous studies have provided conflicting evidence concerning the question of whether irrelevant information can facilitate the processing of relevant information in a choice reaction time task. Results of the present study demonstrated that indications of facilitation and/or interference were dependent on the context in which baseline trials were administered. Three groups of 24 subjects pressed a left-.or right-hand key in response to the onset of an X or 0 that was accompanied by a monaural or binaural tone. The monaural toneprovided an irrelevant directional cue since, oia some trials, it was ipsilateral to the correct response (corresponding trials), while, on other trials, it was contralateral Inoncorrasponding trials). When binaural (baseline) trials were presented in the same block as the monaural trials, data suggested that the directional cue produced both facilitation and interference. However, when baseline trials were presented in one block, and corresponding and noncorresponding trials were mixed together in another block, data suggested an interference effect only. The difference was attributed to differences in the degree of stimulus uncertainty within a block of trials.

Effect of an auditory stimulus on the processing of a visual stimulus under single- and dual-tasks conditions

Abstract The Sternberg Additive Factor Method was used to draw inferences about the flow of information under single- and dual-tasks conditions which were identical in terms of the stimuli involved but different in terms of response requirements. In both conditions, subjects pressed a left- or right-hand key in response to the onset of an X or O (intact or degraded) which was accompanied by a monaural or binaural tone. In the dual-tasks condition, subjects responded verbally to the tone location while also making the key-press response, whereas, in the single-task condition, no response to the tone was required. The pattern of main effects and interactions suggested that the same model of information flow described both single- and dual-tasks conditions; i.e., visual and auditory stimuli were encoded separately but shared capacity at the response selection stage.

The effect of prediction accuracy on choice reaction time

In this study, we examined the effect of prediction accuracy on reaction time (RT). Subjects performed on three blocks of choice RT trials, all of which involved the mapping of four stimuli (red, green, 1, or 0) onto two response keys. The subjects were told that the four stimuli were equally probable and that their task was to respond to each stimulus onset by pressing the correct key. In one block (stimulus-prediction), the subjects predicted, prior to each trial, the precise stimulus that would appear. In a second block (category-prediction), the subjects predicted the category of the stimulus (i.e., color or digit) that would appear. In a third block (no-prediction), the subjects simply responded to each stimulus without making a prior prediction. In the stimulus-prediction block, RT was faster for correct predictions than for incorrect predictions. In addition, RT was faster on trials in which an incorrect prediction involved the correct category than on trials in which it involved the incorrect category: that is, a “half-wrong” prediction was better than an “all-wrong” prediction. In the category-prediction block, RT was faster when the stimulus category was predicted correctly than when it was not. There was little evidence of a response-facilitation contribution to the correct-prediction effect. These results permit inferences concerning the encoding and organization of information in memory.