Ja-Kyeong Lee

MUTATIONS AFFECTING THE PATTERN OF THE PNS IN DROSOPHILA REVEAL NOVEL ASPECTS OF NEURONAL DEVELOPMENT

Through a systematic genetic screen, we have identified 55 mutations that affect the development of the PNS of Drosophila embryos. These mutations specify 13 novel and 5 previously characterized genes and define new phenotypes for 2 other known genes. Five classes of mutant phenotypes were identified in the screen: gain of neurons, loss of neurons, abnormal position of chordotonal neurons, aberrant neuronal trajectories, and abnormal morphology of neurons. Phenotypic analyses of mutations identified in this study revealed three novel aspects of PNS development. First, we have identified a novel gene that may be required to define glial versus neuronal cell identity. Second, our data indicate that neuronal migration plays an important role in pattern formation in the embryonic PNS. Third, we have identified mutations that cause a lack of sensory organs, but unlike mutations in proneural genes, do not affect the formation of sensory organ precursors. These genes may be required for key aspects of neuronal differentiation. Our studies suggest that approximately 70 essential genes are required for proper PNS development in Drosophila embryos.

Inhibition of the Cerebral Ischemic Injury by Ethyl Pyruvate With a Wide Therapeutic Window

Background and Purpose— Ethyl pyruvate (EP) is a pyruvate derivative that has been reported recently to prevent lethality in mice with established lethal sepsis and systemic inflammation. In this study, we examined the neuroprotective effect of EP in a rat cerebral ischemia model of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). Methods— Male Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to 1 hour of MCAO, and EP was administered at various time points before or after MCAO. The changes in the brain infarction, neurological deficits, microglia activation, and proinflammatory cytokine expression were evaluated. BV2 microglial cells were also used to access the anti-inflammatory effect of EP. Results— The administration of EP intraperitoneally at 30 minutes before or at 4 or 12 hours after MCAO reduced the infarct volume to 10.3±3.4% (n=6; P<0.05), 21.5±2.7% (n=6; P<0.05), and 44.3±4.0% (n=6; P<0.05), respectively, of that of the control group. The significant reduction in infarct volume was accompanied by the suppression of the clinical manifestations associated with cerebral ischemia, including motor impairment and neurological deficits, microglial activation, and proinflammatory cytokine expression. The neuroprotective effect of EP was yet evident when it was administered as late as 24 hours after MCAO/reperfusion (76.5±4.70%; n=6; P<0.05). EP suppressed lipopolysaccharide induced activation of BV2 cells, as was evidenced by a reduction in NO release and the accompanying induction of proinflammatory cytokines. Conclusions— These results suggest that EP affords the strong protection of the delayed cerebral ischemic injury with a wide therapeutic window.

NADPH Oxidase Mediates Depressive Behavior Induced by Chronic Stress in Mice

Stress is a potent risk factor for depression, yet the underlying mechanism is not clearly understood. In the present study, we explored the mechanism of development and maintenance of depression in a stress-induced animal model. Mice restrained for 2 h daily for 14 d showed distinct depressive behavior, and the altered behavior persisted for >3 months in the absence of intervention. Acute restraint induced a surge of oxidative stress in the brain, and stress-induced oxidative stress progressively increased with repetition of stress. In vitro, the stress hormone glucocorticoid generated superoxide via upregulation of NADPH oxidase. Consistently, repeated restraints increased the expression of the key subunits of NADPH oxidase, p47phox and p67phox, in the brain. Moreover, stressed brains markedly upregulated the expression of p47phox to weak restress evoked in the poststress period, and this molecular response was reminiscent of amplified ROS surge to restress. Pharmacological inhibition of NADPH oxidase by the NADPH oxidase inhibitor apocynin during the stress or poststress period completely blocked depressive behavior. Consistently, heterozygous p47phox knock-out mice (p47phox+/−) or molecular inhibition of p47phox with Lenti shRNA-p47phox in the hippocampus suppressed depressive behavior. These results suggest that repeated stress promotes depressive behavior through the upregulation of NADPH oxidase and the resultant metabolic oxidative stress, and that the inhibition of NADPH oxidase provides beneficial antidepression effects.

JNK pathway is required for retinoic acid-induced neurite outgrowth of human neuroblastoma, SH-SY5Y

&NA; Neurite outgrowth is a central event of neuronal differentiation that proceeds in multiple processes requiring various cellular factors. Here we demonstrated that c‐Jun N‐terminal kinase 1 (JNK1) plays an essential role in RA‐induced neurite outgrowth of SH‐SY5Y cells. Treatment of SH‐SY5Y cells with RA induced a strong activation of JNK1 within 10 min, and the immediate increase of JNK1 activity returned to the basal level in an hour. The second surge of JNK1 activity was observed around 1 day after RA treatment, which coincided with the period of extensive neurite outgrowth. Interestingly, phospho‐JNK was concentrated in the nucleus of cells during the early induction, whereas it was distributed into neurite processes during the delayed second activation period. In SH‐SY5Y carrying a dominant negative form of SEK1, an upstream kinase of JNK1, both early and late inductions of JNK1 activity were repressed along with RA‐induced neurite outgrowth. These results suggest that JNK1 plays an essential role in RA‐induced neuronal differentiation of SH‐SY5Y cells. NeuroReport 14:941–945

Severe motor neuron degeneration in the spinal cord of the Tg2576 mouse model of Alzheimer disease.

The transgenic mouse Tg2576 is widely used as a murine model of Alzheimers disease (AD) and exhibits plaque pathogenesis in the brain and progressive memory impairments. Here we report that Tg2576 mice also have severe spinal cord deficits. At 10 months of age, Tg2576 mice showed a severe defect in the hindlimb extension reflex test and abnormal body trembling and hindlimb tremors when suspended by the tail. The frequency and severity of these abnormalities were overt at 10 months of age and became gradually worsened. On the foot-printing analysis, Tg2576 mice had shorter and narrower strides than the non-transgenic control. Histological analyses showed that neuronal cells including cholinergic neurons in the lumbar cord of Tg2576 mice were severely reduced in number. At 16 months of age, Tg2576 mice showed high levels of amyloid-beta accumulation in the spinal cord. Consistent with this, Tg2576 mice showed that lipid peroxidation levels were increased and mitochondrial metabolic activity were significantly reduced in the spinal cord. Administration of curcumin, a natural compound that has antioxidant properties, notably reversed motor function deficits of Tg2576 mice. The enhanced lipid peroxidation and neuronal loss in the lumbar cord was also partially suppressed by curcumin. Electron microscopic analysis revealed that the sciatic nerve fibers were severely reduced in number and were demyelinated in Tg2576 mice, which were partially rescued by curcumin. These results showed that Tg2576 mice display severe degeneration of motor neurons in the spinal cord and associated motor function deficits.

Ethyl pyruvate inhibits HMGB1 phosphorylation and secretion in activated microglia and in the postischemic brain.

Ethyl pyruvate (EP) has been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects and confer protective effects in various pathological conditions. For example, EP inhibits secretion of high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), which is known to be released from activated or dying cells and aggravate inflammatory pathways. In the present study, we investigated whether EP reduces HMGB1 phosphorylation and release in ischemic brain and in cultured microglia. In the postischemic brains (60 min middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO)), HMGB1 was released extracellularly, generating dual peaks in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) around 1 and 7 days after ischemic insult, which were probably generated from damaged neurons and activated inflammatory cells, respectively. We showed that treatment with EP 30 min post-MCAO (5 mg/kg, i.v.), which has been shown to confer a robust neuroprotective effect in the postischemic brain, reduced both peaks. In addition, delayed EP treatment from 4 days post-MCAO reduced HMGB1 accumulation in CSF at 7 day post-MCAO in the absence of accompanying amelioration of ischemic brain damage, indicating that the suppression of HMGB1 release is a direct effect. We also found that EP markedly suppressed the LPS-induced nuclear translocations of protein kinase C alpha and calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase IV, HMGB1 phosphorylation, and subsequent secretion of HMGB1 induced by LPS in BV2 cells and EP-mediated above-mentioned effects were also independent of cell death or survival. These results indicate that EP inhibits HMGB1 phosphorylation and release in activated microglia, which might be responsible for EP-mediated suppression of HMGB1 release in the postischemic brain.

Assessment of C-phycocyanin effect on astrocytes-mediated neuroprotection against oxidative brain injury using 2D and 3D astrocyte tissue model

Drugs are currently being developed to attenuate oxidative stress as a treatment for brain injuries. C-phycocyanin (C-Pc) is an antioxidant protein of green microalgae known to exert neuroprotective effects against oxidative brain injury. Astrocytes, which compose many portions of the brain, exert various functions to overcome oxidative stress; however, little is known about how C-Pc mediates the antioxidative effects of astrocytes. In this study, we revealed that C-Pc intranasal administration to the middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) rats ensures neuroprotection of ischemic brain by reducing infarct size and improving behavioral deficits. C-Pc also enhanced viability and proliferation but attenuated apoptosis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) of oxidized astrocytes, without cytotoxicity to normal astrocytes and neurons. To elucidate how C-Pc leads astrocytes to enhance neuroprotection and repair of ischemia brain, we firstly developed 3D oxidized astrocyte model. C-Pc had astrocytes upregulate antioxidant enzymes such as SOD and catalase and neurotrophic factors BDNF and NGF, while alleviating inflammatory factors IL-6 and IL-1β and glial scar. Additionally, C-Pc improved viability of 3D oxidized neurons. In summary, C-Pc was concluded to activate oxidized astrocytes to protect and repair the ischemic brain with the combinatorial effects of improved antioxidative, neurotrophic, and anti-inflammatory mechanisms.

Ethyl Pyruvate Inhibits HMGB1 Phosphorylation and Release by Chelating Calcium

Ethyl pyruvate (EP), a simple aliphatic ester of pyruvic acid, has been shown to have antiinflammatory effects and to confer protective effects in various pathological conditions. Recently, a number of studies have reported EP inhibits high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) secretion and suggest this might contribute to its antiinflammatory effect. Since EP is used in a calcium-containing balanced salt solution (Ringer solution), we wondered if EP directly chelates Ca2+ and if it is related to the EP-mediated suppression of HMGB1 release. Calcium imaging assays revealed that EP significantly and dose-dependently suppressed high K+-induced transient [Ca2+]i surges in primary cortical neurons and, similarly, fluorometric assays showed that EP directly scavenges Ca2+ as the peak of fluorescence emission intensities of Mag-Fura-2 (a low-affinity Ca2+ indicator) was shifted in the presence of EP at concentrations of ≥7 mmol/L. Furthermore, EP markedly suppressed the A23187-induced intracellular Ca2+ surge in BV2 cells and, under this condition, A23187-induced activations of Ca2+-mediated kinases (protein kinase Cα and calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase IV), HMGB1 phosphorylation and subsequent secretion of HMGB1 also were suppressed. (A23187 is a calcium ionophore and BV2 cells are a microglia cell line.) Moreover, the above-mentioned EP-mediated effects were obtained independent of cell death or survival, which suggests that they are direct effects of EP. Together, these results indicate that EP directly chelates Ca2+, and that it is, at least in part, responsible for the suppression of HMGB1 release by EP.

Robust Protective Effects of a Novel Multimodal Neuroprotectant Oxopropanoyloxy Benzoic Acid (a Salicylic Acid/Pyruvate Ester) in the Postischemic Brain

Cerebral ischemia leads to brain injury via a complex series of pathophysiological events. Therefore, multidrug treatments or multitargeting drug treatments are attractive options in efficiently limiting brain damage. Here, we report a novel multifunctional compound oxopropanoyloxy benzoic acid (OBA-09), a simple ester of pyruvate and salicylic acid. This protective effect was manifested by recoveries from neurological and behavioral deficits. OBA-09 exhibited antioxidative effects in the postischemic brain, which was evidenced by remarkable reduction of lipid peroxidation and 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal staining in OBA-09-administered animals. Reactive oxygen species generation was markedly suppressed in primary cortical cultures under oxygen-glucose deprivation. More interestingly, OBA-09 was capable of scavenging hydroxyl radical in cell-free assays. High-performance liquid chromatography results demonstrated that OBA-09 was hydrolyzed to salicylic acid and pyruvate with t1/2 = 43 min in serum and 4.2 h in brain parenchyma, indicating that antioxidative function of OBA-09 is executed by itself and also by salicylic acid after the hydrolysis. In addition to antioxidative function, OBA-09 exerts anti-excitotoxic and anti-Zn2+-toxic functions, which might be attributed to attenuation of ATP and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide depletion and to the suppression of nuclear factor-κB activity induction. Together these results indicate that OBA-09 has a potent therapeutic potential as a multimodal neuroprotectant in the postischemic brain and these effects were conferred by OBA-09 itself and subsequently its hydrolyzed products.

Anti-inflammatory and anti-excitoxic effects of diethyl oxopropanamide, an ethyl pyruvate bioisoster, exert robust neuroprotective effects in the postischemic brain

Ethyl pyruvate (EP) is a simple aliphatic ester of pyruvic acid and has been shown to have robust neuroprotective effects via its anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, and anti-apoptotic functions. In an effort to develop novel EP derivatives with greater protective potencies than EP, we generated four EP isosteres, among them the neuroprotective potency of N,N-diethyl-2-oxopropanamide (DEOPA), in which the ethoxy group of EP was replaced with diethylamine, was far greater than that of EP. When DEOPA was administered intravenously (5 mg/kg) to rat middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model at 6 hrs post-surgery, it suppressed infarct formation, ameliorated neurological and sensory/motor deficits, and inhibited microglial activation and neutrophil infiltrations in the postischemic brain more effectively than EP. In particular, DEOPA markedly suppressed LPS-induced nitrite production and cytokine/chemokine inductions in microglia, neutrophils, and endothelial cells and these effects are attributable to inhibition of the activity of NF-κB by suppressing IκB-α degradation and p65 to DNA binding. In addition, DEOPA suppressed NMDA-induced neuronal cell death in primary cortical neuron cultures by NAD replenishment and suppression of NF-κB activity. Together, these results indicate DEOPA has multi-modal protective effects against ischemic brain damage targeting numerous cell types in the brain and also against other inflammation-related diseases.