Jaakko Mononen

The development of on-farm welfare assessment protocols for foxes and mink: the WelFur project

The WelFur project aims at the development of on-farm welfare assessment protocols for farmed foxes (the blue fox [Vulpes lagopus], the silver fox [Vulpes vulpes]) and mink (Neovison vison). The WelFur protocols are based on Welfare Quality® (WQ) principles and criteria. Here, we describe the WelFur protocols after two years of developmental work. Reviews for each of the 12 WQ welfare criteria were written for foxes and mink to identify the welfare measures that have been used in scientific studies. The reviews formed the basis for potential measures to be included in the WelFur protocols. All measures were evaluated for their validity, reliability and feasibility. At present, we have identified 15 fox and 9 mink animal-based (or outcome-based) welfare measures, and 11 and 13 input-based (resource-based or management-based) measures. For both foxes and mink, each of the four WQ principles is judged by at least one criterion, and seven out of the 12 criteria include animal-based measures. The protocols will be piloted in 2012. Using the WQ project and protocols as a model has been a fruitful approach in developing the WelFur protocols. The effects of the WelFur protocols will provide benchmarks from which the welfare of animals on European fur farms can be assessed.

Preferences of farmed blue foxes for different floor types

In the first experiment, farmed blue foxes were allowed to choose for 1 week between four standard farm cages equipped with different floor materials: plastic-coated wire mesh, dry wood, dry sand and wet (summer) or icy (winter) sand. Resting consisted of 10-15 separate bouts/day occupying 50-60% of the total 24-h. There were no other differences in the use of the cages except that the time spent on, and the duration and number of resting bouts were lower on wet or icy sand, resting periods being more affected than activity. In the second experiment, two cages were connected with a 1.2 m tunnel. One cage was always elevated (50 cm) compared to that one which was lower. One cage of each pair had a wire floor whereas the other cage either had sand or wire floor. Sand floor was preferred for active behaviours and wire floor for resting if these were on elevated level. Of two identical wire-floored cages, the elevated one had the priority. Foxes preferred to rest on the same floor where they had finished their previous resting bout, often exclusively and independently of floor material or floor level.

Jerk-based feature extraction for robust activity recognition from acceleration data

A current trend in activity recognition is to use just one easily carried accelerometer, either integrated into a mobile phone, carried in a pocket, or attached to an animals collar. The main disadvantage of this approach is that the orientation of the accelerometer is generally unknown. Therefore, one cannot separate body-related accelerations from the gravitational acceleration or determine the real directions of the observed accelerations accurately. As a solution, we introduce a new technique where jerk (changes of accelerations) is analyzed instead of the original acceleration signal. The total jerk magnitude is completely orientation-independent and it reflects only body-related accelerations. If the direction of the gravitation can be approximated even loosely, then the jerk signal can be further enriched with valuable information on jerk angles (direction changes). According to our experiments this kind of jerk-filtered signal produces robust features and can improve the recognition accuracy remarkably.

Preferences of farmed silver foxes (Vulpes vulpes) for four different floor types

Farmed silver foxes were allowed to choose between four standard farm cages, each of which was equipped with a different floor material: plastic-coated wire mesh (WM); dry wood (DW); dry sand (DS); and wet wood (WW) or icy sand (IS). Six males and six females were placed in the test environment singly in winter; and the same individuals, again in spring. The use of the different floors was videorecorded and analysed from the tapes for active periods and resting period on 5 or 6 d. Resting consisted of 14–20 separate bouts d−1, occupying 58–62% of the total 24 h. In winter, the active periods of the animal’s day were spent as follows: DW (34%) = DS (33%) > IS (17%) = WM (15%). The resting periods were spent as follows: DW (59%) > WM (26%) = DS (15%) > IS (1%). In spring, the order of active time was DS (36%) > DW (25%) = WW (24%) > WM (15%) and of resting time was DW (51%) > WM (19%) = WW (16%) = DS (15%). Different individuals preferred different floors, leading to large variance in the group means. This ...

Factor analysis of behavioural tests in farmed silver and blue foxes

Abstract We recorded and analysed behaviour of farmed silver and blue foxes in the open-field with a computer-based system. In addition, the reaction towards humans and the capture time were recorded for the animals in their home cage. Factor analysis with VARIMAX rotation produced four independent factors. In the silver fox, the first factor was loaded from general activity in the open-field and accounted for 42% of the variance; the second factor was mainly loaded from initial activity (24%). The third factor was related to the reaction towards humans (19%) and the fourth was the capture time (15%). In the blue fox, the factors were: general (41%) and initial activity in the open-field (26%), capture time (17%) and reaction towards humans (15%). A 5 min exposure to the open-field was sufficient to provide the information needed. In the spring in comparison with the autumn a higher proportion of silver foxes did not come out of the start box to the open-field at all, while fewer young blue foxes emerged than old ones, such reaction thus being an additional behavioural test. The open-field Factor 2 (initial activity) was higher in adult silver foxes and in the autumn compared with juveniles or the same adults about 5 months earlier. The adult individuals in this group were more passive towards humans in the spring. Adult blue foxes were more active in the open-field than the young and their initial activity was higher in the spring. In the spring there were more passive blue foxes while in the autumn the number of fearful individuals was greater. In the autumn, juveniles were more aggressive than adults. Adult blue foxes were more easily accessible to a capturer than young blue foxes. The effect of cage environment on behaviour of the foxes was assessed in animals housed in empty wire-mesh cages or in cages provided with resting platforms and nest boxes or platforms only. There were no other differences between these groups in their open-field behaviour except that the initial activity was lower in the control blue foxes. Blue foxes in the control group were more fearful and passive towards humans, whereas no differences were found among silver foxes. The capture time was always longest in the nest box groups, due to the obstacles that the nest boxes presented to the capture. Our results confirm that behaviour of foxes is subject to changes detectable by the behavioural tests used. However, in this study the behaviour of both fox species appeared to be affected more by season and age than by housing conditions.

Use of nest boxes by young farmed silver foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in autumn

Abstract Traditionally farmed silver foxes are raised in their cages without next boxes, with the exception of vixens in their breeding season. However, according to the European recommendations for keeping foxes, each weaned fox shall have available a secluded area, such as a resting platform or a nest box, for resting, hiding and observing. The aim of the work was to study a simple alternative to enrich the traditional housing system of juvenile foxes by providing a standard wire-mesh cage (length 112 cm × width 107 cm × height 70 cm) with a wooden nest box. The extent to which the nest boxes (dimensions of the main chamber 40 cm × 40 cm × 40 cm; or diameter 38 cm, height 32 cm) were used by silver foxes was assessed in two long-term experiments in practical farming situations, i.e. one or two juvenile foxes per standard cage. The nest boxes were situated in the wire-mesh cages where the animals were kept. Foxes (36 kept in pairs and eight kept singly) spent most of their time (> 50%) on the roofs of the nest boxes and only 1–2% of their time inside the nest boxes. The wire-mesh floor was used very little for resting in August–October, but in November some foxes started to rest there sporadically. When resting on the floor, the animals always occupied a small area from which the view of the surroundings was best. Preference for the nest box roof with a good view may result from non-preference for the much worse cage floor view.

The use of resting platforms by young silver foxes (Vulpes vulpes)

Abstract According to the current European recommendation for animal protection regulations for fur animals, farmed foxes should have a resting platform in their cages. Therefore, the total time of use and factors affecting the use of resting platforms by 20 young silver foxes were studied on an experimental fur farm in western Finland. Silver foxes used the platforms on average 70 min day −1 (median 24 min day −1 ). The use declined over time from September/October (146 min day −1 ) to January (9 min day −1 ). Interindividual differences in platform use were marked especially in September/October. Platforms with a more unobstructed view of the surroundings were preferred to platforms with a more restricted view. Platforms were used most during the working week, but outside the working hours. Neither daily temperature nor wind velocity had an effect on platform use. It can be concluded that platforms function neither as protection against cold and draught nor as a hiding place. The role of the platforms as a resting place is not supported by the short and decreasing duration of their use as a function of time. They may have a role as a place for making observations, or simply as an environmental enrichment.

Evolutionary comparison of energy economy between finnish and Japanese raccoon dogs

Abstract 1. 1. The paper describes evolutionary differences in energetics between the raccoon dogs originated from islands (Japan) and mainlands (eastern Asia). 2. 2. The Japanese raccoon dog is specialized to live in a temperate marine climate; it has a stomach of small volume, thin fur coat with low insulation, specialized diet and a poor ability to alter its body energy reserves seasonally. 3. 3. The raccoon dog living in mainland is more generalized, and thus also well-adapted to survive extreme climate of northern latitudes. 4. 4. The results confirm the previous conclusions made from chromosomal analyses that the Japanese raccoon dog has evolved from the mainland form.

Group housing in row cages: an alternative housing system for juvenile mink.

We studied a group housing system as an alternative to the traditional pair housing of juvenile mink. The focus was on both the welfare and production of mink. The pairs were housed in standard mink cages, whereas the groups were in row cage systems consisting of three standard mink cages connected to each other. The welfare of the mink was evaluated by behavioural observations (stereotypies and social contacts), evaluation of the incidence of scars assumed to be caused by biting, and adrenal function (serum cortisol level after adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) administration and adrenal mass). Feed consumption, pelt length, quality and price were used for comparing the two housing systems from the economic point of view. Although the incidence of scars showed that there might have been more aggressive behaviour among the group-housed than among the pair-housed mink, this was not observed unambiguously in behavioural observations, and, at least, aggression did not cause mortality or serious injuries to the animals as has been observed in some earlier studies. In addition, the housing system did not affect pelt size, and, although the quality of the pelts was slightly lower in the group than in pair-housed mink, there was only a tendency for lower pelt prices. The lower pelt prices in the group-housed mink might even be partially compensated for by the group-housed mink eating 10% to 20% less in the late autumn, due to thermoregulatory benefits, than their pair-housed conspecifics. The results on the frequency of stereotypic behaviour (but not adrenal function) suggest that the group-housed animals were possibly less stressed than the pair-housed animals. Group housing of juvenile farmed mink in a row cage system cannot be recommended before the effects on welfare and production are clarified in further studies.

Relationship Between Hyponeophagia and Adrenal Cortex Function in Farmed Foxes

The adrenal cortex function of farmed blue (Alopex lagopus) and silver foxes (Vulpes vulpes) differing in their reaction in the feeding test were assessed. The urine cortisol:creatinine ratio was lower for those animals eating in the feeding test in comparison to those not eating in both species. In addition, eater silver foxes had lower baseline serum cortisol concentration and also lower serum cortisol concentration 2 h after ACTH administration than noneaters. There were no differences in any serum cortisol levels between the eater and noneater blue foxes. The weights of body and adrenals did not differ between confident and fearful animals in either species. The present study demonstrates that animals not eating in the feeding test may have higher fearfulness and be more stressed than animals eating.