Jaap Keijer

Polyunsaturated fatty acids of marine origin upregulate mitochondrial biogenesis and induce β-oxidation in white fat

Aims/hypothesisIntake of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids reduces adipose tissue mass, preferentially in the abdomen. The more pronounced effect of marine-derived eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) acids on adiposity, compared with their precursor α-linolenic acid, may be mediated by changes in gene expression and metabolism in white fat.MethodsThe effects of EPA/DHA concentrate (6% EPA, 51% DHA) admixed to form two types of high-fat diet were studied in C57BL/6J mice. Oligonucleotide microarrays, cDNA PCR subtraction and quantitative real-time RT-PCR were used to characterise gene expression. Mitochondrial proteins were quantified using immunoblots. Fatty acid oxidation and synthesis were measured in adipose tissue fragments.ResultsExpression screens revealed upregulation of genes for mitochondrial proteins, predominantly in epididymal fat when EPA/DHA concentrate was admixed to a semisynthetic high-fat diet rich in α-linolenic acid. This was associated with a three-fold stimulation of the expression of genes encoding regulatory factors for mitochondrial biogenesis and oxidative metabolism (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1 alpha [Ppargc1a, also known as Pgc1α] and nuclear respiratory factor-1 [Nrf1] respectively). Expression of genes for carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A and fatty acid oxidation was increased in epididymal but not subcutaneous fat. In the former depot, lipogenesis was depressed. Similar changes in adipose gene expression were detected after replacement of as little as 15% of lipids in the composite high-fat diet with EPA/DHA concentrate, while the development of obesity was reduced. The expression of Ppargc1a and Nrf1 was also stimulated by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in 3T3-L1 cells.Conclusions/interpretationThe anti-adipogenic effect of EPA/DHA may involve a metabolic switch in adipocytes that includes enhancement of β-oxidation and upregulation of mitochondrial biogenesis.

The secretory function of adipocytes in the physiology of white adipose tissue.

White adipose tissue, previously regarded as a passive lipid storage site, is now viewed as a dynamic tissue. It has the capacity to actively communicate by sending and receiving different types of signals. An overview of these signals, the external modulators that affect adipose tissue and the secreted signaling molecules, the adipokines, is presented. The secretory function is highlighted in relation to energy metabolism, inflammation and the extracellular matrix and placed in the context of adipose tissue biology. We observe that the endocrine function of adipocytes receives much attention, while its paracrine and autocrine functions are underestimated. Also, we provide examples that species specificity should not be neglected. We conclude that adipose tissue primarily is an energy storage organ, well supported by its secretory function. J. Cell. Physiol. 216: 3–13, 2008.

The application of DNA microarrays in gene expression analysis

DNA microarray technology is a new and powerful technology that will substantially increase the speed of molecular biological research. This paper gives a survey of DNA microarray technology and its use in gene expression studies. The technical aspects and their potential improvements are discussed. These comprise array manufacturing and design, array hybridisation, scanning, and data handling. Furthermore, it is discussed how DNA microarrays can be applied in the working fields of: safety, functionality and health of food and gene discovery and pathway engineering in plants.

Rapid yeast estrogen bioassays stably expressing human estrogen receptors α and β, and green fluorescent protein: a comparison of different compounds with both receptor types

Previously, we described the construction of a rapid yeast bioassay stably expressing human estrogen receptor α (hERα) and yeast enhanced green fluorescent protein (yEGFP) in response to estrogens. In the present study, the properties of this assay were further studied by testing a series of estrogenic compounds. Furthermore, a similar assay was developed based on the stable expression of human estrogen receptor β (hERβ). When exposed to 17β-estradiol, the maximum transcriptional activity of the ERβ cytosensor was only about 40% of the activity observed with ERα, but the concentration where half-maximal activation is reached (EC50), was about five times lower. The relative estrogenic potencies (REP), defined as the ratio between the EC50 of 17β-estradiol and the EC50 of the compound, of the synthetic hormones dienestrol, hexestrol and especially mestranol were higher with ERα, while DES was slightly more potent with ERβ. The gestagens progesterone and medroxyprogesterone-acetate showed no response, whereas the androgen testosterone showed a very weak response. The anabolic agent, 19-nortestosterone showed a clear dose-related response with estrogen receptor α but not β. The phytoestrogens coumestrol, genistein, genistin, daidzein, daidzin and naringenin were relatively more potent with ERβ. Ranking of the estrogenic potency with ERα was: 17β-estradiol ⪢ 8-prenylnaringenin > coumestrol > zearalenone ⪢ genistein ⪢ genistin > naringenin. The ranking with the ERβ was: 17β-estradiol ⪢ coumestrol > genistein > zearalenone > 8-prenylnaringen ⪢ daidzein > naringenin > genistin ⪢ daidzin. The hop estrogen 8-prenylnaringenin is relatively more potent with ERα. These data show that the newly developed bioassays are valuable tools for the rapid and high-throughput screening for estrogenic activity.

Mitochondrial (Dys)function in Adipocyte (De)differentiation and Systemic Metabolic Alterations

In mammals, adipose tissue, composed of BAT and WAT, collaborates in energy partitioning and performs metabolic regulatory functions. It is the most flexible tissue in the body, because it is remodeled in size and shape by modifications in adipocyte cell size and/or number, depending on developmental status and energy fluxes. Although numerous reviews have focused on the differentiation program of both brown and white adipocytes as well as on the pathophysiological role of white adipose tissues, the importance of mitochondrial activity in the differentiation or the dedifferentiation programs of adipose cells and in systemic metabolic alterations has not been extensively reviewed previously. Here, we address the crucial role of mitochondrial functions during adipogenesis and in mature adipocytes and discuss the cellular responses of white adipocytes to mitochondrial activity impairment. In addition, we discuss the increase in scientific knowledge regarding mitochondrial functions in the last 10 years and the recent suspicion of mitochondrial dysfunction in several 21st century epidemics (ie, obesity and diabetes), as well as in lipodystrophy found in HIV-treated patients, which can contribute to the development of new therapeutic strategies targeting adipocyte mitochondria.

Profiling of the secreted proteins during 3T3-L1 adipocyte differentiation leads to the identification of novel adipokines

AbstractAdipose tissue is an endocrine organ capable of secreting a number of adipokines with a role in the regulation of adipose tissue and whole-body metabolism. We used two-dimensional gel electrophoresis combined with mass spectrometry to profile the secreted proteins from (pre)adipocytes. The culture medium of 3T3-L1 cells during adipocyte differentiation was screened, and 41 proteins that responded to blocking of secretion by 20°C treatment and/or brefeldin A treatment were identified. Prohibitin, stress-70 protein, and adhesion-regulating molecule 1 are reported for the first time as secreted proteins. In addition, procollagen C-proteinase enhancer protein, galectin-1, cyclophilin A and C, and SF20/IL-25 are newly identified as adipocyte secreted factors. Secretion profiles indicated a dynamic environment including an actively remodeling extracellular matrix and several factors involved in growth regulation.

SIRT1 stimulation by polyphenols is affected by their stability and metabolism

Silent information regulator two ortholog 1 (SIRT1) is the human ortholog of the yeast sir2 protein; one of the most important regulators of lifespan extension by caloric restriction in several organisms. Dietary polyphenols, abundant in vegetables, fruits, cereals, wine and tea, were reported to stimulate the deacetylase activity of recombinant SIRT1 protein and could therefore be potential regulators of aging associated processes. However, inconsistent data between effects of polyphenols on the recombinant SIRT1 and on in vivo SIRT1, led us to investigate the influence of (1) stability of polyphenols under experimental conditions and (2) metabolism of polyphenols in human HT29 cells, on stimulation of SIRT1. With an improved SIRT1 deacetylation assay we found three new polyphenolic stimulators. Epigallocatechin galate (EGCg, 1.76-fold), epicatechin galate (ECg, 1.85-fold) and myricetin (3.19-fold) stimulated SIRT1 under stabilizing conditions, whereas without stabilization, these polyphenols strongly inhibited SIRT1, probably due to H2O2 formation. Using metabolically active HT29 cells we were able to show that quercetin (a stimulator of recombinant SIRT1) could not stimulate intracellular SIRT1. The major quercetin metabolite in humans, quercetin 3-O-glucuronide, slightly inhibited the recombinant SIRT1 activity which explains the lack of stimulatory action of quercetin in HT29 cells. This study shows that the stimulation of SIRT1 is strongly affected by polyphenol stability and metabolism, therefore extrapolation of in vitro SIRT1 stimulation results to physiological effects should be done with caution.

Skeletal muscle mitochondrial uncoupling drives endocrine cross-talk through the induction of FGF21 as a myokine

UCP1-Tg mice with ectopic expression of uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) in skeletal muscle (SM) are a model of improved substrate metabolism and increased longevity. Analysis of myokine expression showed an induction of fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) in SM, resulting in approximately fivefold elevated circulating FGF21 in UCP1-Tg mice. Despite a reduced muscle mass, UCP1-Tg mice showed no evidence for a myopathy or muscle autophagy deficiency but an activation of integrated stress response (ISR; eIF2α/ATF4) in SM. Targeting mitochondrial function in vitro by treating C2C12 myoblasts with the uncoupler FCCP resulted in a dose-dependent activation of ISR, which was associated with increased expression of FGF21, which was also observed by treatment with respiratory chain inhibitors antimycin A and myxothiazol. The cofactor required for FGF21 action, β-klotho, was expressed in white adipose tissue (WAT) of UCP1-Tg mice, which showed an increased browning of WAT similar to what occurred in altered adipocyte morphology, increased brown adipocyte markers (UCP1, CIDEA), lipolysis (HSL phosphorylation), and respiratory capacity. Importantly, treatment of primary white adipocytes with serum of transgenic mice resulted in increased UCP1 expression. Additionally, UCP1-Tg mice showed reduced body length through the suppressed IGF-I-GH axis and decreased bone mass. We conclude that the induction of FGF21 as a myokine is coupled to disturbance of mitochondrial function and ISR activation in SM. FGF21 released from SM has endocrine effects leading to increased browning of WAT and can explain the healthy metabolic phenotype of UCP1-Tg mice. These results confirm muscle as an important endocrine regulator of whole body metabolism.

Four selenoproteins, protein biosynthesis, and Wnt signalling are particularly sensitive to limited selenium intake in mouse colon

Selenium is an essential micronutrient. Its recommended daily allowance is not attained by a significant proportion of the population in many countries and its intake has been suggested to affect colorectal carcinogenesis. Therefore, microarrays were used to determine how both selenoprotein and global gene expression patterns in the mouse colon were affected by marginal selenium deficiency comparable to variations in human dietary intakes. Two groups of 12 mice each were fed a selenium-deficient (0.086 mg Se/kg) or a selenium-adequate (0.15 mg Se/kg) diet. After 6 wk, plasma selenium level, liver, and colon glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity in the deficient group was 12, 34, and 50%, respectively, of that of the adequate group. Differential gene expression was analysed with mouse 44K whole genome microarrays. Pathway analysis by GenMAPP identified the protein biosynthesis pathway as most significantly affected, followed by inflammation, Delta-Notch and Wnt pathways. Selected gene expression changes were confirmed by quantitative real-time PCR. GPx1 and the selenoproteins W, H, and M, responded significantly to selenium intake making them candidates as biomarkers for selenium status. Thus, feeding a marginal selenium-deficient diet resulted in distinct changes in global gene expression in the mouse colon. Modulation of cancer-related pathways may contribute to the higher susceptibility to colon carcinogenesis in low selenium status.

HIF and reactive oxygen species regulate oxidative phosphorylation in cancer.

A decrease in oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) is characteristic of many cancer types and, in particular, of clear cell renal carcinoma (CCRC) deficient in von Hippel-Lindau (vhl) gene. In the absence of functional pVHL, hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) 1-alpha and HIF2-alpha subunits are stabilized, which induces the transcription of many genes including those involved in glycolysis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) metabolism. Transfection of these cells with vhl is known to restore HIF-alpha subunit degradation and to reduce glycolytic genes transcription. We show that such transfection with vhl of 786-0 CCRC (which are devoid of HIF1-alpha) also increased the content of respiratory chain subunits. However, the levels of most transcripts encoding OXPHOS subunits were not modified. Inhibition of HIF2-alpha synthesis by RNA interference in pVHL-deficient 786-0 CCRC also restored respiratory chain subunit content and clearly demonstrated a key role of HIF in OXPHOS regulation. In agreement with these observations, stabilization of HIF-alpha subunit by CoCl(2) decreased respiratory chain subunit levels in CCRC cells expressing pVHL. In addition, HIF stimulated ROS production and mitochondrial manganese superoxide dismutase content. OXPHOS subunit content was also decreased by added H(2)O(2.) Interestingly, desferrioxamine (DFO) that also stabilized HIF did not decrease respiratory chain subunit level. While CoCl(2) significantly stimulates ROS production, DFO is known to prevent hydroxyl radical production by inhibiting Fenton reactions. This indicates that the HIF-induced decrease in OXPHOS is at least in part mediated by hydroxyl radical production.