Jaime E. Pineda

CO Isotopologues in the Perseus Molecular Cloud Complex: the X-factor and Regional Variations

We use data gathered by the COMPLETE survey of star-forming regions to find new calibrations of the X-factor and 13CO abundance within the Perseus molecular cloud. We divide Perseus into six subregions, using groupings in a dust temperature vs. LSR velocity plot. The standard X-factor, -->X ? N(H2)/W(12CO) , is derived both for the whole Perseus complex and for each of the six subregions with values consistent with previous estimates. However, the X-factor is heavily affected by the saturation of the emission above -->AV ~ 4 mag, and variations are also found between regions. Linear fits to relate -->W(12CO) and -->AV using only points below 4 mag of extinction yield a better estimate of the -->AV than the X-factor. Linear relations of -->W(13CO) , N(13CO) , and -->W(C18O) with -->AV are derived. The extinction thresholds above which 13CO(1-0) and C18O(1-0) are detected are about 1 mag larger than previous estimates, so that a more efficient shielding is needed for the formation of CO than previously thought. The 12CO and 13CO lines saturate above 4 and 5 mag, respectively, whereas C18O(1-0) never saturates in the whole -->AV range probed by our study (up to 10 mag). Approximately 60% of the positions with 12CO(1-0) emission have subthermally excited lines, and almost all positions have excitation temperatures below the dust temperature. PDR models, using the Meudon code, can explain the 12CO(1-0) and 13CO(1-0) emission with densities ranging between 103 and 104 cm?3. In general, local variations in the volume density and nonthermal motions (linked to different star formation activity) can explain the observations. Higher densities are needed to reproduce CO data toward active star-forming sites, such as NGC 1333, where the larger internal motions driven by the young protostars allow more photons from the embedded high-density cores to escape the cloud. In the most quiescent region, B5, the 12CO and 13CO emission appears to arise from an almost uniform thin layer of molecular material at densities around 104 cm?3, and in this region the integrated intensities of the two CO isotopologues are the lowest in the whole complex.

Structural Analysis of Molecular Clouds: Dendrograms

We demonstrate the utility of dendrograms at representing the essential features of the hierarchical structure of the isosurfaces for molecular line data cubes. The dendrogram of a data cube is an abstraction of the changing topology of the isosurfaces as a function of contour level. The ability to track hierarchical structure over a range of scales makes this analysis philosophically different from local segmentation algorithms like CLUMPFIND. Points in the dendrogram structure correspond to specific volumes in data cubes defined by their bounding isosurfaces. We further refine the technique by measuring the properties associated with each isosurface in the analysis allowing for a multiscale calculation of molecular gas properties. Using COMPLETE13CO -->(J = 1? 0) data from the L1448 region in Perseus and mock observations of a simulated data cube, we identify regions that have a significant contribution by self-gravity to their energetics on a range of scales. We find evidence for self-gravitation on all spatial scales in L1448, although not in all regions. In the simulated observations, nearly all of the emission is found in objects that would be self-gravitating if gravity were included in the simulation. We reconstruct the size-line-width relationship within the data cube using the dendrogram-derived properties and find it follows the standard relation: -->?v R0.58. Finally, we show that constructing the dendrogram of CO -->(J = 1? 0) emission from the Orion-Monoceros region allows for the identification of giant molecular clouds in a blended molecular line data set using only a physically motivated definition (self-gravitating clouds with masses > -->5 ? 104 M?).

An Ammonia Spectral Atlas of Dense Cores in Perseus

We present ammonia observations of 193 dense cores and core candidates in the Perseus molecular cloud made using the Robert F. Byrd Green Bank Telescope. We simultaneously observed the NH3(1,1), NH3(2,2), C2S ( -->21? 10), and C -->342S( -->21? 10) transitions near -->? = 23 GHz for each of the targets with a spectral resolution of -->? v ? 0.024 km s?1. We find ammonia emission associated with nearly all of the (sub)millimeter sources, as well as at several positions with no associated continuum emission. For each detection, we have measured physical properties by fitting a simple model to every spectral line simultaneously. Where appropriate, we have refined the model by accounting for low optical depths, multiple components along the line of sight, and imperfect coupling to the GBT beam. For the cores in Perseus, we find a typical kinetic temperature of -->Tk = 11 K, a typical column density of -->NNH3 ? 1014.5 cm ?2, and velocity dispersions ranging from -->?v = 0.07 to 0.7 km s?1. However, many cores with -->?v > 0.2 km s?1 show evidence for multiple velocity components along the line of sight.

The Complete Survey of Outflows in Perseus

We present a study on the impact of molecular outflows in the Perseus molecular cloud complex using the COMPLETE Survey large-scale 12CO(1-0) and 13CO(1-0) maps. We used three-dimensional isosurface models generated in right ascension-declination-velocity space to visualize the maps. This rendering of the molecular line data allowed for a rapid and efficient way to search for molecular outflows over a large (~16 deg2) area. Our outflow-searching technique detected previously known molecular outflows as well as new candidate outflows. Most of these new outflow-related high-velocity features lie in regions that have been poorly studied before. These new outflow candidates more than double the amount of outflow mass, momentum, and kinetic energy in the Perseus cloud complex. Our results indicate that outflows have significant impact on the environment immediately surrounding localized regions of active star formation, but lack the energy needed to feed the observed turbulence in the entire Perseus complex. This implies that other energy sources, in addition to protostellar outflows, are responsible for turbulence on a global cloud scale in Perseus. We studied the impact of outflows in six regions with active star formation within Perseus of sizes in the range of 1-4 pc. We find that outflows have enough power to maintain the turbulence in these regions and enough momentum to disperse and unbind some mass from them. We found no correlation between outflow strength and star formation efficiency (SFE) for the six different regions we studied, contrary to results of recent numerical simulations. The low fraction of gas that potentially could be ejected due to outflows suggests that additional mechanisms other than cloud dispersal by outflows are needed to explain low SFEs in clusters.

DIRECT OBSERVATION OF A SHARP TRANSITION TO COHERENCE IN DENSE CORES

We present NH3 observations of the B5 region in Perseus obtained with the Green Bank Telescope (GBT). The map covers a region large enough ( 11 0 14 0 ) that it contains the entire dense core observed in previous dust continuum surveys. The dense gas traced by NH3(1,1) covers a much larger area than the dust continuum features found in bolometer observations. The velocity dispersion in the central region of the core is small, presenting subsonic non-thermal motions which are independent of scale. However, it is thanks to the coverage and high sensitivity of the observations that we present the detection, for the first time, of the transition between the coherent core and the dense but more turbulent gas surrounding it. This transition is sharp, increasing the velocity dispersion by a factor of 2 in less than 0.04 pc (the 31 00 beam size at the distance of Perseus, 250 pc). The change in velocity dispersion at the transition is 3 km s -1 pc -1 . The existence of the transition provides a natural definition of dense core: the region with nearly-constant subsonic non-thermal velocity dispersion. From the analysis presented here we can not confirm nor rule out a corresponding sharp density transition. Subject headings: ISM: clouds — stars: formation — ISM: molecules — ISM: individual (Perseus Molecular Complex, B5)

THE ENIGMATIC CORE L1451-mm: A FIRST HYDROSTATIC CORE? OR A HIDDEN VeLLO?

We present the detection of a dust continuum source at 3 mm (CARMA) and 1.3 mm (Submillimeter Array, SMA), and 12CO (2-1) emission (SMA) toward the L1451-mm dense core. These detections suggest a compact object and an outflow where no point source at mid-infrared wavelengths is detected using Spitzer. An upper limit for the dense core bolometric luminosity of 0.05 L # is obtained. By modeling the broadband spectral energy distribution and the continuum interferometric visibilities simultaneously, we confirm that a central source of heating is needed to explain the observations. This modeling also shows that the data can be well fitted by a dense core with a young stellar object (YSO) and a disk, or by a dense core with a central first hydrostatic core (FHSC). Unfortunately, we are not able to decide between these two models, which produce similar fits. We also detect 12CO (2-1) emission with redshifted and blueshifted emission suggesting the presence of a slow and poorly collimated outflow, in opposition to what is usually found toward YSOs but in agreement with prediction from simulations of an FHSC. This presents the best candidate, so far, for an FHSC, an object that has been identified in simulations of collapsing dense cores. Whatever the true nature of the central object in L1451-mm, this core presents an excellent laboratory to study the earliest phases of low-mass star formation. Based on observations carried out with the IRAM 30 m Telescope, the Submillimeter Array, and CARMA. IRAM is supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany), and IGN (Spain). The Submillimeter Array is a joint project between the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics and is funded by the Smithsonian Institution and the Academia Sinica. Support for CARMA construction was derived from the states of California, Illinois, and Maryland, the James S. McDonnell Foundation, the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, the Kenneth T. and Eileen L. Norris Foundation, the University of Chicago, the Associates of the California Institute of Technology, and the National Science Foundation. Ongoing CARMA development and operations are supported by the National Science Foundation under a cooperative agreement and by the CARMA partner universities.

A role for self-gravity at multiple length scales in the process of star formation

Self-gravity plays a decisive role in the final stages of star formation, where dense cores (size ∼0.1 parsecs) inside molecular clouds collapse to form star-plus-disk systems. But self-gravity’s role at earlier times (and on larger length scales, such as ∼1 parsec) is unclear; some molecular cloud simulations that do not include self-gravity suggest that ‘turbulent fragmentation’ alone is sufficient to create a mass distribution of dense cores that resembles, and sets, the stellar initial mass function. Here we report a ‘dendrogram’ (hierarchical tree-diagram) analysis that reveals that self-gravity plays a significant role over the full range of possible scales traced by 13CO observations in the L1448 molecular cloud, but not everywhere in the observed region. In particular, more than 90 per cent of the compact ‘pre-stellar cores’ traced by peaks of dust emission are projected on the sky within one of the dendrogram’s self-gravitating ‘leaves’. As these peaks mark the locations of already-forming stars, or of those probably about to form, a self-gravitating cocoon seems a critical condition for their existence. Turbulent fragmentation simulations without self-gravity—even of unmagnetized isothermal material—can yield mass and velocity power spectra very similar to what is observed in clouds like L1448. But a dendrogram of such a simulation shows that nearly all the gas in it (much more than in the observations) appears to be self-gravitating. A potentially significant role for gravity in ‘non-self-gravitating’ simulations suggests inconsistency in simulation assumptions and output, and that it is necessary to include self-gravity in any realistic simulation of the star-formation process on subparsec scales.

The JCMT Gould Belt Survey: first results from the SCUBA-2 observations of the Ophiuchus molecular cloud and a virial analysis of its prestellar core population

In this paper, we present the first observations of the Ophiuchus molecular cloud performed as part of the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT) Gould Belt Survey (GBS) with the SCUBA-2 instrument. We demonstrate methods for combining these data with previous HARP CO, Herschel, and IRAM N2H+ observations in order to accurately quantify the properties of the SCUBA-2 sources in Ophiuchus. We produce a catalogue of all of the sources found by SCUBA-2. We separate these into protostars and starless cores. We list all of the starless cores and perform a full virial analysis, including external pressure. This is the first time that external pressure has been included in this level of detail. We find that the majority of our cores are either bound or virialized. Gravitational energy and external pressure are on average of a similar order of magnitude, but with some variation from region to region. We find that cores in the Oph A region are gravitationally bound prestellar cores, while cores in the Oph C and E regions are pressure-confined. We determine that N2H+ is a good tracer of the bound material of prestellar cores, although we find some evidence for N2H+ freeze-out at the very highest core densities. We find that non-thermal linewidths decrease substantially between the gas traced by C18O and that traced by N2H+, indicating the dissipation of turbulence at higher densities. We find that the critical Bonnor–Ebert stability criterion is not a good indicator of the boundedness of our cores. We detect the pre-brown dwarf candidate Oph B-11 and find a flux density and mass consistent with previous work. We discuss regional variations in the nature of the cores and find further support for our previous hypothesis of a global evolutionary gradient across the cloud from south-west to north-east, indicating sequential star formation across the region.

The First ALMA view of IRAS 16293-2422: Direct detection of infall onto source B and high-resolution kinematics of source A

Aims: In this paper, we focus on the kinematical properties of a proto-binaryto study the infall and rotation of gas towards its two protostellarcomponents. Methods: We present ALMA Science Verification observations withhigh-spectral resolution of IRAS 16293-2422 at 220.2 GHz. The wealth ofmolecular lines in this source and the very high spectral resolution offered byALMA allow us to study the gas kinematics with unprecedented detail. Results:We present the first detection of an inverse P-Cygni profile towards source Bin the three brightest lines. The line profiles are fitted with a simpletwo-layer model to derive an infall rate of 4.5x10^-5 Msun/yr. This infalldetection would rule-out the previously suggested possibility of source B beinga T Tauri star. A position velocity diagram for source A shows evidence forrotation with an axis close to the line-of-sight.

A BUBBLING NEARBY MOLECULAR CLOUD: COMPLETE SHELLS IN PERSEUS

We present a study of the shells (and bubbles) in the Perseus molecular cloud using the COMPLETE survey large-scale 12CO(1-0) and 13CO(1-0) maps. The 12 shells reported here are spread throughout most of the Perseus cloud and have circular or arc-like morphologies with a range in radius of about 0.1-3 pc. Most of them have not been detected before most likely because maps of the region lacked the coverage and resolution needed to distinguish them. The majority of the shells are coincident with infrared nebulosity of similar shape and have a candidate powering source near the center. We suggest that they are formed by the interaction of spherical or very wide angle winds powered by young stars inside or near the Perseus molecular cloud--a cloud that is commonly considered to be forming mostly low-mass stars. Two of the 12 shells are powered by high-mass stars close to the cloud, while the others appear to be powered by low- or intermediate-mass stars in the cloud. We argue that winds with a mass loss rate of about 10-8 to 10-6 M # yr-1 are required to produce the observed shells. Our estimates indicate that the energy input rate from these stellar winds is similar to the turbulence dissipation rate. We conclude that in Perseus the total energy input from both collimated protostellar outflows and powerful spherical winds from young stars is sufficient to maintain the turbulence in the molecular cloud. Large-scale molecular line and IR continuum maps of a sample of clouds will help determine the frequency of this phenomenon in other star-forming regions.