James A. Dimmock

Towards an understanding of mental toughness in Australian football

A personal construct psychology (PCP; Kelly, 1955/1991) framework was employed in an attempt to reveal a holistic understanding of mental toughness in the context of Australian Football. Eleven male coaches (M age = 42, SD = 9.62) with considerable playing and coaching experience at the elite level were interviewed using a PCP-based interview protocol. Transcribed verbatim data were analyzed using grounded theory procedures. Three independent categories (characteristics, situations, behaviors) were inductively derived and integrated into a model in which the importance of understanding each component individually was emphasized. The relationship between these three central categories was also highlighted. Results identified the key mental characteristics and their contrasts together with those situations that demand mental toughness, and the behaviors commonly displayed by mentally tough footballers. Conceptualized in the context of these three categories, mental toughness in Australian Football can be considered as a buffer against adversity but also as a collection of enabling factors that promote and maintain adaptation to other challenging situations. Practical implications of the findings are discussed and focus on issues pertaining to enhancing and/or developing mental toughness.

Evaluation of a Mental Toughness Training Program for Youth-Aged Australian Footballers: I. A Quantitative Analysis

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of two different psychological skills training (PST) packages in enhancing mental toughness among three youth-aged (under 15 years old) Australian football teams. We compared a program targeting the keys to mental toughness identified previously (Gucciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock, 2008) with a more traditional PST program targeting self-regulation, arousal regulation, mental rehearsal, attentional control, self-efficacy, and ideal performance state as well as a control group. Overall, both intervention groups reported more positive changes in subjective ratings of mental toughness, resilience, and flow than the control group. Similar ratings for mental toughness were reported by the parents and coaches. Both PST packages appeared to be equally effective in enhancing mental toughness.

Advancing mental toughness research and theory using personal construct psychology

This review is designed to advance current conceptualizations of mental toughness in sport as well as identify avenues for future research by offering a fresh perspective using Kellys (1955/1991) personal construct psychology (PCP). After reviewing sport-general and sport-specific research contributing to current perspectives on mental toughness, we highlight the need for theoretically driven research in the area. Following this, we provide an overview PCP and offer a conceptual model grounded in PCP which attempts to organize the knowledge base as well as provide a platform for future research. In integrating previous research with PCP, we propose a construct definition in which the multidimensional nature of mental toughness, its usefulness for dealing with and thriving through both positively and negatively construed situations, and the processes by which this occurs are highlighted. Specifically, mental toughness is defined as a collection of values, attitudes, emotions, and cognitions that influence the way in which an individual approaches, responds to, and appraises demanding events to consistently achieve his or her goals. To conclude, methodological and conceptual limitations associated with previous research are examined and the PCP model of mental toughness presented here is employed to identify avenues for future research.

Relationship of Fan Identification to Determinants of Aggression

Abstract Fan identification refers to the psychological connection that individuals have with sport teams. This study sought to determine whether fans possessing different levels of identification respond differently to the antecedents to aggressive spectator behaviors that are addressed by the theory of planned behavior. Fans of four professional sport teams (N = 231) were placed in one of three groups based on their scores for fan identification strength. Consistent with hypotheses, highly identified fans felt less control over their behavior at games than moderately identified fans and lowly identified fans. Contrary to hypotheses, however, neither attitudes towards aggression nor subjective norms on aggression differed between identification levels. Discussion centers on the relevance of the findings for the control of different types of aggression.

A systematic review of the effects of non-conscious regulatory processes in physical activity

ABSTRACT Physical activity theories have almost exclusively focused on conscious regulatory processes such as plans, beliefs, and expected value. The aim of this review was to aggregate the burgeoning evidence showing that physical activity is also partially determined by non-conscious processes (e.g., habits, automatic associations, priming effects). A systematic search was conducted and study characteristics, design, measures, effect size of the principle summary measures, and main conclusions of 52 studies were extracted by two independent coders. The findings support that habitual regulatory processes measured via self-report are directly associated with physical activity beyond conscious processes, and that there is likely interdependency between habit strength and intentions. Response latency measures of automatic associations with physical activity were widely disparate, precluding conclusions about specific effects. A small body of evidence demonstrated a variety of priming effects on physical activity. Overall, it is evident that physical activity is partially regulated by non-conscious processes, but there remain many unanswered questions for this area of research. Future research should refine the conceptualisation and measurement of non-conscious regulatory processes and determine how to harness them to promote physical activity.

Psychometric Evaluation of the Team Identification Scale among Greek Sport Fans: A Cross-validation Approach

Abstract The aim of the present study was to explore the multidimensional nature of sport team identification. More specifically, the study tested the psychometric properties of the Team Identification Scale (TIS) among Greek sport fans using a cross-validation approach. Following a thorough procedure, the TIS was initially translated and then validated using a sample of 327 Greek sport fans. Item meaning equivalence was also examined using a sample of 257 Australian sport fans. Results presented evidence regarding TISs reliability, factorial validity, predictive efficacy and cross-national generalizability. It seems that the TIS is a valid tool for assessing the multidimensional nature of this construct among both English- and Greek-speaking populations.

The Goose Is (Half) Cooked: a Consideration of the Mechanisms and Interpersonal Context Is Needed to Elucidate the Effects of Personal Financial Incentives on Health Behaviour

While we agree that personal financial incentives (PFIs) may have some utility in public health interventions to motivate people in the uptake and persistence of health behaviour, we disagree with some of the sentiments outlined by Lynagh et al. (Int J Behav Med 20:114–120, 2012). Specifically, we feel that the article gives a much stronger impression that PFIs will likely lead to long-term behaviour change once the incentive has been removed than is warranted by current research. This claim has not received strong empirical support nor is it grounded in psychological theory on the role of incentives and motivation. We also feel that the presentation of some of the tenets of self-determination theory by the authors is misleading. Based on self-determination theory, we propose that PFIs, without sufficient consideration of the mechanisms by which external incentives affect motivation and the interpersonal context in which they are presented, are unlikely to lead to persistence in health behaviour once the incentive is removed. We argue that interventions that adopt PFIs as a strategy to promote health-behaviour change should incorporate strategies in the interpersonal context to minimise the undermining effect of the incentives on intrinsic motivation. Interventions should present incentives as informational regarding individuals’ competence rather than as purely contingent on behavioural engagement and emphasise self-determined reasons for pursuing the behaviour.

Identification with sport teams as a function of the search for certainty

Abstract Based on ideas from subjective uncertainty reduction theory, we examined the extent to which individuals hold similar sport team preferences to their family and friends. We also assessed the extent to which perceived sport importance and personal need for structure are influential in the development of team identification. Australian high school students aged 15.5±1.0 years (mean±s) completed questionnaires containing the Personal Need for Structure Scale, the Relational-Interdependent Self-Construal scale, a Team Identification Scale, and items assessing perceptions of sport importance and team preferences. As expected, correlations indicated that preferences for sport teams were significantly related to the preferences of family and friends. Separate analyses of variance confirmed the remaining hypotheses. More specifically, individuals who perceived that sport was important identified with the team more than individuals who perceived sport to be less important. Also, individuals high in personal need for structure scored higher in cognitive/affective team identification than those low in this need. Individuals with differing needs for structure did not differ in their scores on other dimensions of team identification. The results support the notion that cognitive/emotional attachments to sport teams are influenced by perceptions of the importance of sport and by needs for subjective structure. It is possible that other psychological motives, such as the desire for self-esteem, facilitate the development of evaluative dimensions of team identification.

Sleep, anxiety and electronic device use by athletes in the training and competition environments

Abstract This study subjectively assessed sleep quality and quantity, state anxiety and electronic device use during a 7-day training week (TRAIN) and a 7-day competitive tournament (COMP). Eight state-level netball players used wrist-watch actigraphy to provide indirect sleep measures of bedtime, wake time, sleep duration, sleep onset latency, sleep efficiency, wake after sleep onset and fragmentation index. State anxiety was reported using the anxiety sub-scale in the Profile of Mood States-Adolescents. Before bed duration of electronic device use and the estimated time to sleep after finishing electronic device use was also recorded. Significant main effects showed that sleep efficiency (p = 0.03) was greater in COMP as compared to TRAIN. Furthermore, the bedtime and wake time were earlier (p = 0.01) during COMP. No further differences existed between conditions (p > 0.05). However, strong negative associations were seen between state anxiety and the sleep quality rating. Here, sleep efficiency was likely greater in COMP due to the homeostatic need for recovery sleep, resulting from the change in environment from training to competition. Furthermore, an increased anxiety before bed seems to influence sleep quality and should be considered in athletes portraying poor sleep habits.

Home-based exercise improves fitness and exercise attitude and intention in women with GDM

PURPOSE The purpose of the study was to determine the effect of a home-based cycling program for women with a recent diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) on aerobic fitness, weight gain, self-reported mobility, attitude, and intentions toward maternal exercise, and obstetric and neonatal outcomes. METHODS Forty women (mean ± SD, 28.8 ± 0.9-wk gestation) were randomized to either a supervised, home-based exercise program, combining continuous steady-state and interval cycling at various intensities, in combination with unsupervised moderate intensity aerobic activity and conventional diabetic management (EX; n = 20) or to conventional management alone (CON; n = 20). The program began following diagnosis until week 34 of pregnancy (mean ± SD duration of training, 6 ± 1 wk). RESULTS Mean compliance to the training program was 96%. Maternal aerobic fitness, and attitude and intentions toward exercise were improved in response to the home-based exercise intervention compared with CON (P < 0.05). No differences were observed between the groups with respect to maternal weight gain or obstetric and neonatal outcomes (P > 0.05). CONCLUSION A home-based exercise program of 6 ± 1 wk in duration commenced after diagnosis of GDM can improve aerobic fitness and attitude and intentions toward exercise, with no adverse effect on maternal and neonatal pregnancy outcomes.