James A. Serpell

Beneficial Effects of Pet Ownership on Some Aspects of Human Health and Behaviour

A 10-month prospective study was carried out which examined changes in behaviour and health status in 71 adult subjects following the acquisition of a new pet (either dogs or cats). A group of 26 subjects without pets served as a comparison over the same period. Both pet-owning groups reported a highly significant reduction in minor health problems during the first month following pet acquisition, and this effect was sustained in dog owners through to 10 months. The pet-acquiring groups also showed improvements in their scores on the 30-item General Health Questionnaire over the first 6 months and, in dog owners, this improvement was maintained until 10 months. In addition, dog owners took considerably more physical exercise while walking their dogs than the other two groups, and this effect continued throughout the period of study. The group without pets exhibited no statistically significant changes in health or behaviour, apart from a small increase in recreational walking. The results provide evidence that pet acquisition may have positive effects on human health and behaviour, and that in some cases these effects are relatively long term.

Correlates of pen size and housing conditions on the behaviour of kennelled dogs

Abstract The dog ( Canis familiaris ) has been domesticated for thousands of years but the effects of different housing regimens on canine behaviour are poorly understood. This study presents behavioural data collected from solitary and group-housed dogs housed in animal shelters and laboratories. The dogs differed greatly in their behaviour under the different housing regimens. Solitary dogs were more inactive (72–85% of observed time compared with group-housed dogs 54–62% of observed time), and spent more time in non-social repetitive locomotory behaviour categories (4–5% compared with group-housed 0.9–2% of observed time). Group-housed dogs were not only able of interact socially, but also spent more time investigating the floor of their pens, presumably because of the increased olfactory stimuli. Group-housed laboratory dogs provided with kennels used them for: rest, play and the control of social interactions. Single-housed dogs, which were housed in smaller pens, had low overall activity and tended towards stereotyped circling rather than pacing. At all the sites the opportunities for interactions with humans were limited (0.24–2.52% of the time observed). The results are discussed in terms of cage design and animal husbandry.

The English Cocker Spaniel: preliminary findings on aggressive behaviour

Abstract Two thousand questionnaires were distributed randomly via the Kennel Club (UK) to owners of purebred English Cocker Spaniels (ECSs). Owners were asked to give details about the ECSs they owned: age, sex, neuter status, coat colour. They were also asked to indicate whether their dog showed aggression (on a 1–5 scale; 1, never or almost never; 5, always or almost always) in any of 13 situations. These were: aggression towards strange dogs (A1), towards strangers approaching the dog (A2), towards persons approaching/visiting the home (A3), towards persons approaching the owner away from home (A4), towards children in the household (A5), towards other dogs in the household (A6), when the owner gives attention to other person or animal (A7), toward owner or member of owners family (A8), when disciplined (A9), when reached for or handled (A10), when in restricted spaces (A11), at meal times/ defending food (A12) and, suddenly and without apparent reason (A13). A total of 1008 (50.4%) replies was received, of which 932 (owning 1109 dogs) were suitable for analysis. Solid colour ECSs were significantly more likely to show aggression than particolours in 12 out of the 13 situations (A2–A13) and red/goldens were more likely to show aggression than blacks in situations A1, A4, A5 and A7–A13 inclusive. Males were significantly more likely to show aggression than females in situations A1, A8, A9 and A10 while females were significantly more likely to show aggression towards other dogs in the household (A6). When comparing ECSs which had been neutered before signs of aggression were apparent, with entires, neutered females were found more likely to show aggression towards children in the household (A5). Cluster analysis revealed six groups of associated variables; these were labelled, ‘protective (of itself and owner)’, ‘protective (of territory)’, ‘intraspecific (unfamiliar dogs)’, ‘competitive’, ‘possessive’, and ‘dominance-type’ aggression. Most dogs showed ‘protective (of territory)’ aggression (45.7%) while ‘dominance-type’ aggression was the least common (11.7%). The results suggest a genetic and neuroendocrine basis for the within-breed differences in aggression. Neutering was not found to be useful as a preventative measure for aggression. From the cluster analysis, there was some evidence that so-called ‘rage’ syndrome, a condition often reported in the breed and one which is characterised by sudden and unpredictable aggression, is an expression of social dominance, rather than being a separate or pathological phenomenon. Follow-up projects are now underway and it is hoped they will lead to a better understanding of all types of canine aggression, and provide an answer as to whether or not ‘rage’ truly exists as a distinct phenomenon.

Animal-assisted interventions in historical perspective

Publisher Summary This chapter attempts to provide a brief historical account of the various ways in which animals and companion animals are perceived as contributing to human mental and physical health. Animist belief systems are characteristic of all hunting and foraging societies, and among these societies, offended animal spirits are often viewed as the most common source of malignant spiritual influences. Although animist belief systems are particularly characteristic of hunting and foraging peoples, they have also persisted in a variety of forms in many pastoral nomadic and agricultural societies where they often coexist, through a process of synchretic fusion, with more recently imposed religious creeds and practices. The purpose of dwelling on the particular example of contemporary Amerindian belief in soul animals is that it illustrates the remarkable tenacity of animistic/shamanistic ideas and practices in Central America, despite the coercive influence of nearly five centuries of imported Roman Catholicism. Similarly, in Europe and around the Mediterranean basin, it appears that vestiges of comparable belief systems survived in a number of local and regional healing cults, at least until the early modern period. The positive therapeutic value of animal companionship continues to receive little recognition in mainstream medical literature, and, as a field of research, it is grossly under-supported by government funding agencies.

Effects of breed, sex, and neuter status on trainability in dogs

Abstract In a previous study of canine temperament (Hsu and Serpell 2003), a distinct “trainability” factor was identified, characterized by a dogs willingness to attend to its owner and obey simple commands, combined with a high “fetch” motivation, and low levels of distractibility and/or resistance to correction. This paper explores the distribution of this trait in a large sample of dogs in relation to breed, sex and neuter status. The owners of 1,563 dogs belonging to 11 common breeds were invited to assess them for “trainability” using a standardized questionnaire (C-BARQ©). Highly significant breed differences in trainability were detected. In two breeds with distinct field and show bred lines, show bred dogs obtained significantly lower trainability scores. Although no overall sex differences in trainability were detected, male Dachshunds and West Highland White Terriers were found to be significantly more trainable than females. Neutering was not associated with any differences in trainability in female dogs in any breed, but was associated with positive effects on trainability in male Shetland sheepdogs. The findings suggest that there is scope for improving trainability in most breeds of dog, and emphasize the dangers of generalizing among breeds with respect to sex differences in trainability or the benefits of neutering. The biological basis of the trainability trait is also discussed in light of recent research on the evolution of canine social cognition.

Environmental influences on the expression of aggressive behaviour in English Cocker Spaniels

A group of ‘low’ (n = 217) and ‘high’ (n = 218) aggression purebred English Cocker Spaniels were compared in relation to demographics and owner interactions. Owners of ‘low’ aggression dogs were more likely to be: older (65 years +; χ2 = 18.753, P < 0.01) and more attached to their dogs (U = 20346, P < 0.001). Dogs in the ‘high’ aggression group were: significantly more likely to be of a solid colour (χ2 = 38.13, P < 0.001); more likely to have been chosen for pet purposes only (χ2 = 25.161, P < 0.001); more likely to have suffered an illness during the first 16 weeks of life (χ2 = 14.899, P < 0.001); groomed less often (t = 2.252, P < 0.05); given less time for walks/exercise (t = 2.618, P < 0.01); slow in obeying commands (U = 17967.5, P < 0.001), more likely to pull on the lead (U = 16663, P < 0.001); and more likely to react to loud or high-pitched noises (χ2 = 14.142, P < 0.001). Factors often quoted to be important in the development of dominance-related aggression, such as feeding the dog before the owner eats, a lack of obedience training, and playing competitive games with the dog, were not found to be significantly different between the two groups. Determining the importance of various factors in the development of canine aggression will enable us to better advise owners in the rearing of their dogs.

Childhood Pets and Their Influence on Adults' Attitudes

A survey of 120 adult subjects was conducted to investigate the influence of childhood experience with pets (dogs and cats) on an individuals subsequent liking for pets when adult. The results demonstrate a significant association between a persons contact with pet-animals during childhood and his tendency to keep pets, usually of the same species, as an adult. Some theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Animals and human society : changing perspectives

Modern society is beginning to re-examine its whole relationship with animals and the natural world. Until recently issues such as animal welfare and environmental protection were considered the domain of small, idealistic minorities. Now, these issues attract vast numbers of articulate supporters who collectively exercise considerable political muscle. Animals, both wild and domestic, form the primary focus of concern in this often acrimonious debate. Yet why do animals evoke such strong and contradictory emotions in people - and do our western attitudes have anything in common with those of other societies and cultures? Bringing together a range of contributions from distinguished experts in the field, Animals and Society explores the importance of animals in society from social, historical and cross-cultural perspectives.

Dog Keeping in Taiwan: Its Contribution to the Problem of Free-Roaming Dogs

This study conducted a quantitative ethnographic analysis of the influence of demographic factors and early experience (childhood exposure to dogs) on Taiwanese dog-keeping practices and behavior. A telephone survey of a randomly selected sample of 2,001 Taiwan residents determined their dog ownership histories, current patterns of dog ownership and disposal, and other dog-related activities. The results suggest that low rates of neutering, easy availability of low- or no-cost puppies, a tendency to allow owned dogs free access to the outdoors, unrealistic expectations of dog ownership, canine behavioral problems, and religious and cultural taboos against euthanasia and shelter relinquishment have contributed to the recent increase in the numbers of free-roaming dogs in Taiwan. Logistic regression analyses determined that a relatively small number of demographic and experiential variables predicted dog ownership and disposal patterns. The most important of these was childhood experience of living with household dogs. In light of these findings, future efforts to reduce the stray dog problem should focus on enforcing registration fees, particularly for unsterilized animals; low-cost neutering schemes; and educational programs designed to promote neutering, improve knowledge of canine behavior and behavior problems, and develop more realistic expectations and attitudes toward dog ownership. Marked Taiwanese resistance to canine euthanasia and shelter relinquishment suggests a need for alternative methods of managing the existing free-roaming dog population.

Free-roaming dog control among OIE-member countries.

A questionnaire was distributed to the state veterinary services of all 172 OIE countries to collect data on the different national approaches to dog population control. We used all 81 completed questionnaires with ≥80% of the question answered to identify the different national approaches to the issue. The intensity of the free-roaming dog (FRD) problem was negatively correlated with the value of the UNs human development index recognized for each country. Dog bites/attacks and rabies were the main problems associated with FRDs, and these problems were reported disproportionately by less-developed countries. Dog-control programs (DCP) were more widely used among the more-developed countries. In less-developed countries, DCPs (when they existed at all) tended to employ killing methods (including poisoned baits), that are not recommended on animal-welfare grounds.