James C. Finley

Connectivity With Nature as a Measure of Environmental Values

The authors hypothesize that environmental values derive from a sense of connectivity with nature. Connectivity describes a perception of sameness between the self, others, and the natural world. The experience of connectivity involves dissolution of boundaries and a sense of a shared or common essence between the self, nature, and others. Connectivity with nature differs theoretically and operationally from other explanations of environmental values, including cultural bias, postmaterialism, and social altruism. The authors describe their development of a sociometric scale to operationalize connectivity with nature. Based on data from a mail survey of Pennsylvania landowners, the authors use multiple regression analyses to determine the extent to which connectivity with nature predicts and explains environmental concern and behavior in the presence of standard sociodemographic variables. Survey respondents reported a high level of connectivity with nature, and connectivity retained a significant and positive relationship to environmental concern and environmental behavior in multiple regression models. Implications of these findings are advanced.

Determinants of Water Conservation Intention in Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria

Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria, has faced frequent water shortages during the past decade, but little effort has been made to encourage or implement water conservation among household water users. We employ the theory of planned behavior (TBP) as a theoretical framework in evaluating determinates of intention to implement a set of specific water conservation behaviors among Blagoevgrad residents. In addition to the TPB variables, we consider the effects of sociodemographics, environmental attitudes, information possession, and concern over future shortages on water conservation intention. The analysis is based on 728 questionnaires collected during the summer of 2003. The TPB variables all showed positive and significant correlation with water conservation intention. Self-perceived knowledge of climate change was also significantly related to intention. Environmental attitudes and concern over future shortages were significant but relatively weak determinants.

Landowner Perceptions of Protecting and Establishing Riparian Forests: A Qualitative Analysis

While the ecological importance of riparian forests is widely recognized, identifying the best policies for reforesting privately owned stream lands also requires an understanding of societal perceptions. Forty semistructured interviews with riparian landowners in central Pennsylvania revealed a study population driven by competing considerations. On one hand, these landowners expressed a community obligation to consider the downstream consequences of their management styles. On the other, they often failed to appreciate their own contributions to water pollution and were reluctant to abandon the ordered landscapes to which they were accustomed. Possible implications of these findings are advanced.

INTEGRATING WILDLIFE AND HUMAN-DIMENSIONS RESEARCH METHODS TO STUDY HUNTERS

Abstract Recreational hunting is the primary management tool used by natural resource agencies to control ungulate populations. Although free-ranging ungulates have been studied extensively in North America, relatively little is known about the field behavior of hunters or the factors that influence hunting behavior, except on small study areas where access is limited and controlled. We developed 3 integrated protocols to estimate hunter density, distribution, movements, habitat use, characteristics, and attitudes, which can be used on large areas with unrestricted access. We described how aerial surveys, in conjunction with distance sampling techniques and a Geographic Information System (GIS) database of landscape characteristics, provide estimates of hunter density and a map of hunter distribution and habitat use. We used Global Positioning System (GPS) units issued to hunters to systematically record hunter locations. Hunters also completed a simple questionnaire. We linked these data and used them to obtain detailed information on habitat use, movements, and activity patterns. Whereas aerial surveys are limited to discrete points in time and relate only to aggregations of hunters, data collected on hunters that carry GPS units can be used to study habitat use and distribution at different times of day for individual hunters. Finally, linked responses from a traditional mail or telephone survey to hunter location data collected via GPS units to assess how hunter characteristics (e.g., age, physical condition, attitudes) were related to field behavior. We applied these techniques during a white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) hunting season on a large tract (45,749 ha) of public land in Pennsylvania, USA, with unrestricted hunter access. We estimated density of 7 hunters/1,000 ha (95% CI: 4.2 to 10.3) in the morning and 6.3 hunters/1,000 ha (95% CI: 3.5 to 10.0) in the afternoon. We found that hunter density was negatively related to distance from roads and slope. Most hunters preferred stand hunting, especially in the early morning hours (0600–0800 hr; 72% stationary); more walked or stalked in the afternoon (1400–1600 hr; 58% stationary). The average maximum distance hunters reached from a road open to public vehicles was 0.84 km (SE = 0.03), and they walked an average of 5.48 km (SE = 0.193) during their daily hunting activities. We believe that the approaches we used for studying hunter behavior will be useful for understanding the connections between hunter attitudes and behavior and hence will allow managers to predict hunter response to changes in harvest regulations. Furthermore, our methods are more accurate than requesting hunters to self-report where they hunted. For example, we found that hunters reported that they walked >2.5 times farther from the nearest road (x̄ = 2.23 km, SE = 0.13) than actual distance recorded via GPS units (x̄ = 0.84 km, SE = 0.03). Our research provides wildlife managers with new knowledge on several levels. At the most basic level, we learned a great deal about what hunters actually do while in the field, rather than simply what they report. Second, linking field behavior with hunter characteristics will provide insights into the likely effects of changing hunter demographics. Finally, linking these data with traditional human-dimensions research topics, such as attitudes toward hunting regulations, may allow managers to better forecast the potential effects of regulation changes on hunter distribution and effort.

Where Is “Community” in Community-Based Forestry?

Community-based forestry and community-based natural resource management have become increasingly common terms in both the scientific and popular press. However, as with so many other concepts currently in vogue, rarely do studies invoking them incorporate either a grounded theoretical understanding or practical inclusion of the central term: community. Community emerges through communication and interaction among people who care about each other and the place they live. In its purest form, community is marked by its multiple and often conflicting perspectives. This article draws upon recent research experience with the Ford Foundations community-based forestry initiative to illustrate the importance of solidly framing community in order to successfully link forest ecosystem management with community well-being.

Categorizing Deer Hunters by Typologies Useful to Game Managers: A Latent-Class Model

Game managers emphasize hunting as the only realistic large-scale management tool currently available to control deer densities. Identifying the characteristics of hunters who place importance on deer hunting as a management tool, view deer damage as significant, or believe that current deer densities are too high could be valuable to game managers. Additionally, identifying demographic and behavioral characteristics of these hunters may allow innovative licensing regulations to reduce deer overabundance. Our analysis concluded that a determination of hunter typology is well suited to the method of latent-class analysis (LCA). We identified four categories of hunters, distinguished by their attitudes toward recent hunting regulation changes in Pennsylvania, damage deer cause to their surroundings, current deer populations, and availability of hunting land. We discuss the implications of these categories for game managers.

Effort versus Motivation: Factors Affecting Antlered and Antlerless Deer Harvest Success in Pennsylvania

Hunting can be an effective tool for managing deer populations, but hunter willingness to harvest deer and their success is critical to management capacity. Moreover, harvest of antlerless deer is crucial to managing deer populations. Previous research has examined the effects of weather, habitats, and hunter access on deer harvest success. However, hunter-related factors leading to harvest success are unknown. This study explored the effects of hunter sociodemographic and background characteristics, field behaviors, and motivations on antlerless and antlered deer harvest success. Findings indicated that hunter characteristics and motivations differentially influence the harvest of a doe or a buck. Successful doe hunters viewed hunting as a management tool, were concerned about maintaining access to hunting areas, and hunted for venison. In contrast, harvesting an antlered deer appeared to be mostly a matter of effort. Those who killed an antlered deer spent more days afield, especially during late season.

Why Landowners in Pennsylvania Post Their Property against Hunting

Recent reductions in access to private property have resulted in declining availability of private land for recreational purposes, including hunting. In Pennsylvania, access to such land for deer hunting is critical to effectively manage the Commonwealth’s deer herd. Posting is among the most commonly used means a private landowner has available to limit access to property. This study examined landowners’ motivations to post their land against hunting and other recreational uses. Nearly 70% of all landowners in a mail survey posted their property. Variables that increased landowner likelihood of posting included past problems with recreational users, location, number of acres owned, and concerns about property rights, illegal hunting activities, safety, and potential liability issues. Variables that decreased the likelihood of posting included length of ownership, ownership primarily for agricultural purposes, and concern about deer-related damages. Implications of these findings are advanced.

The value of using multiple methods: An illustration using survey, focus group, and Delphi techniques

Following the lead of Denzin (1970), the authors used a triangulation strategy to develop a framework for assessing the condition of harvested nonindustrial private forests (NIPFs) and information on owners’ forest management knowledge, intentions, and objectives. The purpose of this procedure was the development of protocols to guide field investigators in their conduct of NIPF owner interviews and site evaluations. Two of the three methods, mail surveys and focus groups, provided initial insights into the forest stewardship statements of NIPF owners. Using data drawn from these procedures, the authors used a delphi process to develop specific criteria and standards for use in field application. The development and application of the resulting forest stewardship metric provide important insights into understudied areas of forestland ownership.

Building sustainable communities in forested regions.

ABSTRACT The Northeasts hardwood forests provide myriad resources within a matrix of rural and urban communities. In this region, forest uses such as timber and pulp production compete with demands for recreation, landscapes, and pure water. Forest-based economic development is an enticing approach for preserving the rural character of communities. This study highlights the role and relevance of three factors on forest-based economic development: (1) the community, (2) perceptions, and (3) the resources themselves. Each contributes to our ability to better understand the potential for forest-based economic development. Using input from key informants and residents of Bedford County, Pennsylvania, who participated in a survey about community and economic development impacts of forestry in their area, the findings of this research highlight the importance of local attitudes toward forest-based development, as well as the role of local economic conditions in shaping acceptance for such development.