James D. Murdoch

Range-wide multilocus phylogeography of the red fox reveals ancient continental divergence, minimal genomic exchange and distinct demographic histories

Widely distributed taxa provide an opportunity to compare biogeographic responses to climatic fluctuations on multiple continents and to investigate speciation. We conducted the most geographically and genomically comprehensive study to date of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), the worlds most widely distributed wild terrestrial carnivore. Analyses of 697 bp of mitochondrial sequence in ~1000 individuals suggested an ancient Middle Eastern origin for all extant red foxes and a 400 kya (SD = 139 kya) origin of the primary North American (Nearctic) clade. Demographic analyses indicated a major expansion in Eurasia during the last glaciation (~50 kya), coinciding with a previously described secondary transfer of a single matriline (Holarctic) to North America. In contrast, North American matrilines (including the transferred portion of Holarctic clade) exhibited no signatures of expansion until the end of the Pleistocene (~12 kya). Analyses of 11 autosomal loci from a subset of foxes supported the colonization time frame suggested by mtDNA (and the fossil record) but, in contrast, reflected no detectable secondary transfer, resulting in the most fundamental genomic division of red foxes at the Bering Strait. Endemic continental Y‐chromosome clades further supported this pattern. Thus, intercontinental genomic exchange was overall very limited, consistent with long‐term reproductive isolation since the initial colonization of North America. Based on continental divergence times in other carnivoran species pairs, our findings support a model of peripatric speciation and are consistent with the previous classification of the North American red fox as a distinct species, V. fulva.

The Endangered Siberian marmot Marmota sibirica as a keystone species? Observations and implications of burrow use by corsac foxes Vulpes corsac in Mongolia

The Siberian marmot Marmota sibirica is a social, colonial-living rodent that ranges widely throughout northern Asia. In Mongolia the species has declined substantially in recent years due to overharvesting for fur, meat and body parts, used locally and traded illegally in international markets. The Siberian marmot is often considered a keystone species because its burrows appear to represent an important resource for a variety of taxa, including carnivores. However, few studies have quantified marmot burrow use by other species, although such use may be important for developing conservation strategies. We monitored patterns of burrow use by 10 radio-collared corsac foxes Vulpes corsac during a study in Mongolia during May–November 2006. Corsacs used marmot burrows regularly and at rates greater than expected by chance, suggesting that burrows represent an important resource for foxes and supporting the notion of the Siberian marmot as a keystone species. As corsacs are also declining in Mongolia we contend that targeted patrols of marmot colonies in certain areas would provide a cost-effective means of protecting both species.

Vulpes corsac (Carnivora: Canidae)

Abstract Vulpes corsac (Linnaeus, 1768) is a canid commonly called the corsac fox or steppe fox. It is distributed throughout nearly all of the central Asian republics of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan and its range extends into portions of Afghanistan, Iran, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Mongolia, and China. It is adapted to arid conditions and can forego food and water for extended periods of time. Cortex and medulla features of its fur allow it to endure cold, harsh winter conditions but it is not adapted for walking on snow. It typically inhabits grassland steppes, semideserts, and deserts and will frequent agricultural lands and plowed fields in some areas. It is an opportunistic forager and hunter that is considered a species of Least Concern from a conservation standpoint.

Vulpes ferrilata (Carnivora: Canidae)

Abstract The canid Vulpes ferrilata Hodgson, 1842, is commonly called the Tibetan sand fox, or sand fox. It is widely distributed in the steppes and semideserts of the Tibetan Plateau north through central China. V. ferrilata has thick fur adapted for cold climate, and it occurs in semiarid to arid upland plains, on barren slopes and hills at elevations of 2,500–5,200 m, most typically above 3,500 m in China. It is hunted for pelts, which are manufactured into hats in Tibet, and hunting and habitat destruction are the main threats to populations of V. ferrilata in Sichuan Province, China. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (World Conservation Union) lists V. ferrilata as a species of “Least Concern.”

Survival and Cause-Specific Mortality of Corsac and Red Foxes in Mongolia

Abstract The corsac fox (Vulpes corsac) and red fox (Vulpes vulpes) range widely across northern and central Asia and may be declining in many regions due to overhunting and other causes. However, details of the fundamental causes of survival and mortality of both species remain largely unquantified, but may be crucial for understanding interspecific relationships and developing effective conservation actions. We studied a radiomarked population of sympatric corsac and red foxes in central Mongolia to quantify survival and cause-specific mortality rates from April 2005 to April 2007. Survival probability was 0.34 for corsacs (n  =  18) and 0.46 for red foxes (n  =  17) and did not vary by year within or between each species. Among both foxes, mortality occurred mainly from hunting by humans, but also from predation by larger canids and unknown causes. Our results suggest that illegal human hunting represents the principal source of mortality for both species and that a recently initiated ranger patrol program in the study area did not affect fox survival. As such, more stringent protective measures will likely be necessary to halt declines of both foxes. Our results also suggest that interference competition occurs between species as red foxes killed but did not consume corsacs. Our results will be useful for developing science-based management strategies to protect foxes in Mongolia, and in understanding the competitive relationships between them.

Herders and Wolves in Post-Soviet Society: An Ethnographic Study in Mongolia’s Ikh Nart Nature Reserve

This article links ecological, social, and cultural data to analyze relationships between wolves and herders in a pastoral setting, the Ikh Nart Nature Reserve, Dornogobi Aimag, Mongolia, an area representative of the broader Gobi-Steppe ecosystem in northern Asia. This article is specifically interested in understanding the contemporary lifestyles of herders in this area, their relationships with wolves, and the perceived and actual risks posed by wolves to both livestock and humans. Data show that herders differed in their views of and actions toward wolves based mainly on the size of herds they managed. But, their cultural stories continue to reflect traditional values and images of wolves and herders. This research argues for an appreciation of cultural contexts in conservation planning, especially in transitional societies.

Desert pastoralists’ negative and positive effects on rare wildlife in the Gobi

In arid regions of the developing world, pastoralists and livestock commonly inhabit protected areas, resulting in human-wildlife conflict. Conflict is inextricably linked to the ecological processes shaping relationships between pastoralists and native herbivores and carnivores. To elucidate relationships underpinning human-wildlife conflict, we synthesized 15 years of ecological and ethnographic data from Ikh Nart Nature Reserve in Mongolias Gobi steppe. The density of argali (Ovis ammon), the worlds largest wild sheep, at Ikh Nart was among the highest in Mongolia, yet livestock were >90% of ungulate biomass and dogs >90% of large-carnivore biomass. For argali, pastoral activities decreased food availability, increased mortality from dog predation, and potentially increased disease risk. Isotope analyses indicated that livestock accounted for >50% of the diet of the majority of gray wolves (Canis lupus) and up to 90% of diet in 25% of sampled wolves (n = 8). Livestock composed at least 96% of ungulate prey in the single wolf pack for which we collected species-specific prey data. Interviews with pastoralists indicated that wolves annually killed 1-4% of Ikh Narts livestock, and pastoralists killed wolves in retribution. Pastoralists reduced wolf survival by killing them, but their livestock were an abundant food source for wolves. Consequently, wolf density appeared to be largely decoupled from argali density, and pastoralists had indirect effects on argali that could be negative if pastoralists increased wolf density (apparent competition) or positive if pastoralists decreased wolf predation (apparent facilitation). Ikh Narts argali population was stable despite these threats, but livestock are increasingly dominant numerically and functionally relative to argali. To support both native wildlife and pastoral livelihoods, we suggest training dogs to not kill argali, community insurance against livestock losses to wolves, reintroducing key native prey species to hotspots of human-wolf conflict, and developing incentives for pastoralists to reduce livestock density.

Body size and sexual dimorphism among a population of corsac and red foxes in central Mongolia

No abstract available

Social Interactions among San Joaquin Kit Foxes Before, during, and after the Mating Season

Abstract Direct observations of small foxes are rare because of their secretive nature and nocturnal activity patterns. We observed 10 adult (≥1-year-old) San Joaquin kit foxes (Vulpes macrotis mutica) at night over a 7-month period that included the mating season to quantify the types, rates, and durations of social interactions. Of 191 interactions between members of this seasonally breeding, socially monogamous species, 52 were with adult foxes in the same social group, 43 with adult foxes from other known social groups, 48 with juveniles (<1 year old), and 48 with unknown foxes. Most interactions (n = 173), especially those between pair-mates, between females, and with juveniles, were affiliative. Agonistic encounters were rare (n = 18) and occurred mostly between males of different social groups and with unknown foxes. Interaction rates with social group members, most of which were pair-mates (88%), peaked in the months before the annual mating season, whereas those with non–social group foxes, most of which represented potential extrapair copulation partners (79%), peaked later and more sharply. The duration of interactions with adult social and non–social group foxes was highest during the mating season. Increased social interactions at this time may help foxes strengthen bonds with pair-mates and become familiar with potential extrapair partners.

Barking Vocalizations in San Joaquin Kit Foxes (Vulpes macrotis mutica)

Abstract Swift foxes (Vulpes velox) and Arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus) often use barking to communicate information to mates, members of social groups, and other conspecifics. Barking by the closely related kit fox (V. macrotis), however, remains largely unobserved and undocumented. We observed barking among a population of radiocollared San Joaquin kit foxes (V. m. mutica) inhabiting Bakersfield, Kern Co., California, during August 2002–March 2003. We observed 150 barks, including 56 from two adult (≥1 year old) males, 83 from an adult female, and 11 from two juveniles (<1 year old). Of these, we recorded nine barks, each of which consisted of a series of short, discrete elements repeated in rapid sequence; similar in structure and sound to barking sequences by swift and Arctic foxes. Barking occurred rarely and concentrated mostly around the mating period in mid-December. Our observations suggest that barking functions to contact or attract mates or potential mates and serves little territorial importance.