James E. Marcia

The Ego Identity Status Approach to Ego Identity

The formation of an ego identity is a major event in the development of personality. Occurring during late adolescence, the consolidation of identity marks the end of childhood and the beginning of adulthood. Identity formation involves a synthesis of childhood skills, beliefs, and identifications into a more or less coherent, unique whole that provides the young adult with both a sense of continuity with the past and a direction for the future.1 As an inner organization, identity may be compared with those psychological structures posited by cognitive developmental theorists, notably Piaget (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958). Identity differs from Piagetian structures, however, in that it is content- as well as process-based. Whereas Piagetian structures are primarily procedures for operating on experience, identity comprises both procedural styles and elements of content. More simply, identity, as a structure, refers to how experience is handled as well as to what experiences are considered important.

Identity status change during adolescence and young adulthood: A meta-analysis

The present study was designed to examine developmental patterns of identity status change during adolescence and young adulthood through meta-analysis. Some 124 studies appearing in PsycINFO, ERIC, Sociological Abstracts, and Dissertation Abstracts International between 1966 and 2005 provided data. All calculations were performed using the software program, Comprehensive Meta-analysis. Results from longitudinal studies showed the mean proportion of adolescents making progressive identity status changes was .36, compared with .15 who made regressive changes and .49 who remained stable. Cross-sectional studies showed the mean proportion of moratoriums rising steadily to age 19 years and declining thereafter, while the mean proportion of the identity achieved rose over late adolescence and young adulthood; foreclosure and diffusion statuses declined over the high school years, but fluctuated throughout late adolescence and young adulthood. Meta-analyses showed that large mean proportions of samples were not identity achieved by young adulthood. Possible reasons for this phenomenon are explored.

The Identity Statuses: Origins, Meanings, and Interpretations

This chapter describes the origins and development of the identity statuses and provides a brief overview of studies into antecedent, concurrent, and consequent implications of the construct. In so doing, it reviews selected personality, relational, behavioral, and developmental variables that have been examined in relation to the identity statuses over the past 45 years. Additionally, the chapter addresses some of the many implications that the identity statuses hold for intervention as well as the relationship of the identity status paradigm to other models of identity. The rootedness of the identity statuses in Erikson’s concept of identity versus identity diffusion (confusion) is discussed, and meta-analyses of the identity statuses in relation to selected variables are presented. Therapeutic and educational interventions for individuals in each identity status are also discussed.

Identity and Psychosocial Development in Adulthood

Psychosocial development in adulthood is viewed from several perspectives. Stage-specific crises in ego growth associated with different life cycle periods are addressed in terms of status measures expanding on Eriksons polar alternative resolutions (Erikson, 1959). The developmental linkages between these stages are discussed using these status measures, and development from one status to another within a particular psychosocial stage is examined. With respect to identity itself, the cyclical process that might describe identity re-formulation through the adult psychosocial stages is discussed and illustrated. Finally, 2 case studies are presented as examples of adult psychosocial development.

Identity six years after: A follow-up study

Thirty male subjects, given identity status interviews 6–7 years previously, were reinterviewed for identity status, as well as intimacy status, life style, and participation in the 1969–1970 campus demonstrations. High identity status appeared more vulnerable to change than did low. The Moratorium status showed a 100% change rate. The establishment of intimate relationships was related both to previous identity status (when that status remained stable) and to current identity status. In life style, Identity Achievement and Moratorium subjects were “open”; Foreclosure subjects were “closed”; and Identity Diffusion subjects tended to be “diffuse”. Subjects currently high in identity tended to feel more positively about and participated more in the 1969–1970 demonstrations than did lower identity status subjects. A new status, Foreclosure/Diffusion, is described. The theoretical anomaly of Identity Achievement and Moratorium subjects moving into the Foreclosure status has led to the suggestion of a process, as opposed to typological, approach to identity. Brief sketches of individuals as they currently appear in the identity statuses conclude the study.

The Status of the Statuses: Research Review

Identity status research has spanned more than twenty-five years and more than 300 studies. Although not all are reviewed in this chapter, the ones that are covered give a fairly coherent picture of what has been determined with some certainty and what is questionable. The issues raised in the four extensive reviews of identity status research (Bourne, 1978a,b; Marcia, 1980; Matteson, 1975; and Waterman, 1982) suggest the structure for this chapter, which is divided into four sections: (a) Personality characteristics of the different identity statuses, emphasizing “the internalization of self-regulatory processes”; (b) Developmental aspects; (c) Gender differences and sex roles; and (d) Cross-cultural studies.

Some directions for the investigation of ego development in early adolescence.

Early adolescence is discussed as a period in the life cycle marked by two important events in ego development: the formation of an ego ideal and the synthesis of an ego identity, both established by means of exploration and experimentation. It is suggested that our society, as contrasted with those offering structured rites of passage, provides the prolonged period of adolescence necessary for this development to take place. Three important precursors at early adolescence to an achieved identity at late adolescence are proposed: confidence in parental support; a sense of industry; and a self-reflective approach to ones future. These three variables have theoretical links, respectively, to psychoanalytic theory, ego developmental (psychosocial) theory, and cognitive structural developmental theory. It is hypothesized that the three variables relate to each other and to the identity statuses at late adolescence in a hierarchical manner.

IDENTITY AND INTERVENTION

The evidence, I thought, seemed clear enough. Frazier had claimed some innovations in behavioral techniques which I wanted to know more about, but I could imagine a potent technology composed of the principles already used by politicians, educators, priests, advertisers and psychologists. The techniques of controlling human behavior were obvious enough. The trouble was, they were in the hands of the wrong people--or of feeble repairmen.

Ego identity status, formal operations, and moral development

Twenty-six subjects (20 males and 6 females) were administered measures assessing ego identity status, level of moral reasoning, and stage of cognitive development. Expectations that formal operations would be a necessary but not a sufficient condition for the development of post-conventional moral thought and for Identity Achievement status were supported. Level of moral thought was also found to be positively related to achievement of identity. Individual descriptions of subjects with noteworthy patterns of the three variables under study were presented. Suggestions for future research included the necessity for replication of these findings with a largerN and exploration of the possibility that level of social role taking mediates between cognitive development and identity (psychosocial) development.

Meta-Analytic Studies of Identity Status and the Relational Issues of Attachment and Intimacy

Marcias ego identity status model has been a popular means of examining various dimensions of the adolescent identity formation process over the past 40 years. The purpose of this investigation was to undertake a meta-analysis of studies addressing the relationship between Marcias identity statuses and attachment (Study 1) and intimacy (Study 2). The following databases were used to identify relevant studies reported between 1966 and 2005: PsycINFO, ERIC, Sociological Abstracts, and Dissertation Abstracts International. Some 14 investigations served as the data for Study 1 and 21 investigations for Study 2. Results from Study 1 found weak to moderate correlations between attachment styles and the identity statuses; however, certain predicted patterns in the relationships were found. Furthermore, the mean proportion of secure attachment was far higher among the identity achieved compared to foreclosures and diffusions. Study 2 showed a positive association between identity and intimacy status, although the relationship was stronger for men than women.