James F. McCoy

Issues in smoking control

Abstract Smoking behaviors have been generally refractive to most current intervention strategies. This paper discusses issues related to both the control of smoking and the analysis of treatment results. In particular a model of assessment is proposed, including an analysis of stimulus situations preceding smoking, and of behavior occurring concomitently with smoking. Evaluation of treatment includes both comparison of treatment effectiveness and maintenance of effects. Issues related to treatment evaluation include the development of comprehensive treatment packages, drop-out rate, cost analysis and multiple effects of treatment. Finally, the control of smoking on a societal level with implications for prevention is considered.

Intensive Feeding Training with Retarded Children

An intensive feeding program previously developed for adult retardates was modified for use with six low functioning retarded children under four experimental conditions: baseline, training, maintenance, and follow-up. The children were given six meals per day with a maximum eating time of 15 min. per meal. A spoon was the only utensil used in training. Graduated guidance faded from hand to shoulder was used to establish correct feeding responses. Restitutional and positive practice overcorrection were used for incorrect responses, and tray time-out and restitutional overcorrection were used for inappropriate behaviors. Results showed that in all children correct eating responses increased to nearly optimal levels, incorrect eating responses were reduced to minimal levels, and inappropriate or disruptive behaviors were virtually eliminated. Follow-up data on intervals up to one year indicated that the effects of the program were quite durable and justified the approximately 173 training sessions that were required for each child.

Accuracy of observational data with whole interval, partial interval, and momentary time-sampling recording techniques

The purpose of the study was to compare the accuracies obtained from whole interval, partial interval, and momentary time-sample recording procedures. Two types of accuracies were defined. Between-methods accuracy is the degree to which an observer using a particular recording method agrees with a standard using a continuous recording method. Within-methods accuracy is the degree to which an observer and a standard agree when both use the same recording method. Fifty-four undergraduate students viewed a videotape of a woman twisting her hair and recorded the occurrence or nonoccurrence of the behavior using one of the three recording methods. Tapes were divided into segments with low, intermediate, and high rates of behavior. Partial and whole interval recording obtained poorer between-methods accuracies than momentary time sampling. Results showed that whole interval and momentary time-sampling procedures yielded higher within-method accuracies than partial interval recording. Thus, momentary time-sampling recording provided the advantages of both greater representativeness and as few or fewer observer errors than whole or partial interval recording procedures. Use of the interval recording methods by researchers must be justifiable within this framework.

Coffee drinking and cigarette smoking: II. Coffee, urinary pH and cigarette smoking behavior.

Abstract This study was designed to evaluate the relationship between coffee consumption, urinary pH, and cigarette smoking. Urine acidity levels were manipulated and the resulting effect on cigarette smoking was monitored. Each of eight subjects participated in each of four conditions in which they received: water, coffee, coffee plus sodium bicarbonate, or coffee plus ascorbic acid. Subjects provided both pre- and post-session urine specimens, which were analyzed to determine pH, and cigarette butts were collected. The results showed that subjects smoke more cigarettes in a one hour session when they receive coffee. However, coffee did not have the effect of increasing urine acidity in one hour so that increased urine acidity cannot account for observed smoking increases. The results are discussed in terms of a stimulus control explanation for the relationship between coffee consumption and cigarette smoking.

Training procedures for acquisition and retention of reading in retarded youth

Abstract The effectiveness of trial-and-error, fading, and delay procedures for teaching oral reading responses to four mentally retarded males was evaluated. Trial-and-error training involved pictorial feedback and differential reinforcement of responses to printed stimuli. Both fading and delay procedures consisted of gradual transfer of stimulus control from pictorial representations of the words to the printed stimuli alone. Fading was accomplished via decreasing picture intensities, while delay involved increasing time intervals between word and picture presentations. A multiple baseline design across six sets of three words each was employed. Subjects were given probe sessions consisting of three random presentations of 18 words. Training with one of the three procedures was conducted on one set of three words until a criterion of three consecutive correct trials was met. Dependent measures were correct reading responses, errors of commission, errors of omission during probes, and trials to criterion during training. Significant differences between procedures were demonstrated, with fading and/or delay procedures producing greater acquisition and retention than trial-and-error techniques.

School-based intervention for the modification of excessive absenteeism†

Three procedures to modify excessive absenteeism were implemented by an elementary school principal and assessed with an across-subjects multiple baseline design. In one condition, the principal praised the child in the classroom for attending school. In a second and third condition, parents were contacted by telephone and either praised for their childs attendance or given disapproval for absences and prompts for future attendance. Results indicated that classroom intervention with the child produced a transitory increase in attendance. However, intervention with parents, both approval for attendance and disapproval for absences, produced sustained increases in attendance and parent-initiated contacts with the school. The data suggest that intervention with parents of elementary school children is more effective and efficient than direct intervention with the child in the modification of excessive school absences. School-based intervention strategies for early reduction of absenteeism may be important in the prevention of chronic truancy and of the necessity for extensive remediation.

Bladder and bowel control in hirschsprung's disease

Abstract We present here the development of bladder and bowel control in a three year old child following surgery for Hirschsprungs disease. Standard bladder control training procedures were used, resulting in improved control of both responses. The usefulness of these procedures is compared with direct anal sphincter control training (Kohlenberg, 1973) and the functional relationship between bladder and bowel control are discussed.

Schedule-induced drinking and reinforcement omission

Abstract Rats were given extended training on a fixed-interval one-minute schedule in the presence of freely available water. Each food pellet delivery was accompanied by brief stimuli of blackout and tone. A total of 10 probe test sessions was conducted after stability was obtained with a maximum of 9 within-session probes during each session. On probes brief stimuli, food, or both were omitted. Omitting brief stimuli, singularly or in combination, did not reliably affect licks or bar presses. Omitting food, in the presence or absence of brief stimuli, eliminated polydipsic rates of licking but rates of bar presses were low early in the interval if brief stimuli were present and high throughout the interval if brief stimuli were absent. These effects were similar to those obtained with second-order schedules and suggest that polydipsic levels of schedule-induced drinking are under the control of the discriminative properties of food reinforcers.

Reversal following Errorless Discrimination Learning

Pigeons were trained on a successive red-green discrimination by either a Late-Constant or Early-Progressive procedure. Following training on the original discrimination, the stimuli were reversed after which there was a return to the original discrimination. All three of the Late-Constant pigeons learned the discrimination with errors and two of the three Early-Progressive pigeons learned the discrimination errorlessly. Responding to the reversed negative stimulus occurred at essentially the same rate for Late-Constant and Early-Progressive subjects, with the exception of one Early-Progressive subject that took substantially more exposure. These results indicate that negative stimulus after errorless learning retards development of responding more than the negative stimulus following errorful learning.

Effective Components of Contingency Contracts with Academic Behaviors of College Students

Components of contractual arrangements for self-monitored study behaviors of college students were assessed in three experiments. Comparisons were made between self-monitoring, verbal specification of contingencies, and a formal contingency contract which contained both written specification of contingencies and a written agreement. The treatments were implemented in a modified Personalized System of Instruction and evaluated with a between-subject design in Experiment I, an ABA withdrawal design in Experiment II, and an ABAB withdrawal design in Experiment III. Results of all three experiments indicated that the naturalistic behaviors of study-time and study-questions answered could be reliably and equally increased and/or maintained by either the formal contractual agreement or verbal specification of contingencies in comparison to self-monitoring. Thus, the instructional and reinforcement variables of contingency contracts constituted the effective components, and written specifications and agreements ...