James J. Annesi

Path analysis of exercise treatment-induced changes in psychological factors leading to weight loss

Physical activity may affect weight loss largely through psychological pathways associated with eating changes, especially in obese individuals whose caloric expenditure through exercise is typically small. Direct testing of this is, however, lacking. Previously sedentary adults (N = 114; 77% female; M age = 43.3 years), with a minimum body mass index (BMI) of 35 kg/m2 (M BMI = 42.0 kg/m2), participated in a 24-week treatment of cognitive-behavioural exercise support and nutrition information. A path model based on tenets of social cognitive and self-efficacy theory was constructed. It was expected that improvements in self-efficacy, physical self-concept, body satisfaction and mood associated with the exercise treatment would predict changes in self-regulation and increased physical activity. It was also hypothesised that improvements in self-efficacy and self-regulation for appropriate eating would transfer from these relationships and predict weight loss. After three theoretically viable paths were added based on modification indices, structural equation modelling indicated a good fit with the data, χ 2(16) = 20.53, p = 0.20; RMSEA = 0.05; SRMR = 0.06; CFI = 0.97; TLI = 0.95. Associations of psychological effects linked to exercise programme participation with predictors of appropriate eating and weight loss were found, and may inform theory, research and treatments.

Correlations of depression and total mood disturbance with physical activity and self-concept in preadolescents enrolled in an after-school exercise program

This preliminary investigation estimated relationships of depression and negative mood with physical activity and self-concept in 9- to 12-yr.-old boys and girls (n = 49) enrolled in an after-school exercise program for 12 wk. Multiple regression analyses indicated that a significant portion of the variance in scores on the Profile of Mood States subscales, Depression (R2 = .55, F = 28.00, p <.01), and Total Mood Disturbance (R2 = .40, F = 15.02, p < .01) were accounted for by simultaneously entering self-reported days of moderate-to-vigorous exercise per week and Self-description Questionnaire-I–General Self scores into the equation. A significant reduction on Depression within the treatment group and significantly greater reductions on Depression and Total Mood Disturbance for the treatment group compared to a no-exercise program control (n = 41) was also found. Effect sizes (ds = .35 to .53) were somewhat lower than reported for most adult samples. Findings supported social cognitive and self-efficacy theory and an association between physical activity and improved mental health in preadolescents.

Effects of a Cognitive Behavioral Treatment Protocol on the Drop-Out Rates of Exercise Participants in 17 YMCA Facilities of Six Cities:

The effects of a treatment system, based on tenets of cognitive behavioral and social cognitive theory, were estimated using case studies conducted in 17 fitness facilities of six regional associations of the YMCA. Significant reductions in drop-out rates of new and returning exercisers were found for the treatment groups (ns = 30 to 124; M drop out = 38.9%, & SD = 9.5) compared to the control groups (ns = 36 to 175; M drop out = 62.9%, SD = 6.4) over the 6-mo. times. Treatment effect sizes, by facility, ranged from small to large (φ = .10 to .43). Findings were consistent with previous research on earlier versions of the present treatment system conducted both within YMCAs and different fitness and wellness venues in the United States, United Kingdom, and Italy. Design limitations and the need for replication were discussed.

CHANGES IN DEPRESSED MOOD ASSOCIATED WITH 10 WEEKS OF MODERATE CARDIOVASCULAR EXERCISE IN FORMERLY SEDENTARY ADULTS

Two groups of adults classified with depressed mood (10% highest scores on the Profile of Mood States-Short Form Depression scale) were contrasted on changes in POMS Depression scores over 10 weeks. The exercise group (n = 26) was given a moderate cardiovascular exercise program of 3x/week for 20 to 30 min. per session. The control group (n = 24) did not participate in exercise. Significant reductions in POMS Depression scores over 10 weeks were noted for the exercise group in between-group (d = –.88) and within-group (d = −1.32) analyses. Significantly more participants in the exercise group scored in the normal range at Week 10 (62%) than in the control group (29%). Neither changes in cardiorespiratory function (VO2 max) nor initial POMS Depression scores were significantly correlated with changes in POMS Depression scores after 10 weeks. Methodological improvements, limitations, and practical application of findings after replication were discussed.

Improvements in Self-Concept Associated with Reductions in Negative Mood in Preadolescents Enrolled in an After-School Physical Activity Program

Preadolescents enrolled in either a 3 times per week, 12-week exercise program (n = 50) or a no-exercise program control condition (n = 42) during their after-school care, were assessed for indication of whether exercise-induced changes in self-concept and overall negative mood were negatively correlated. Significant improvements in ratings of self-concept and of negative mood were found over 12 wk. Inverse relationships were found between changes in physical self-concept with overall self-concept and negative mood (r = –.40 and –.36, respectively). Results supported the positive effect of exercise on the assessed psychological factors in preadolescents. Cognitive behavioral theory-based explanations of the findings were discussed.

Preliminary Evaluation of a 10-Wk. Resistance and Cardiovascular Exercise Protocol on Physiological and Psychological Measures for a Sample of Older Women

A preliminary 10-wk. study was conducted to determine the effect a combined strength and cardiovascular exercise protocol had on both physiological and psychological change in 17 older (M age = 66.8 yr.), formerly sedentary women. The protocol was associated with better adherence than typically found for new and returning exercisers. Significant improvements over 10 wk. were found on Body Mass Index, body fat, resting heart rate, and balance. Significant, positive changes in mean ratings were also found on Physical Self-concept, Total Mood Disturbance, Depression, and Fatigue (small to moderate treatment effect sizes). Although no significant changes were found for rated Tension, Vigor, Anger, and Confusion, mean changes were in the desired direction and rated Tension showed a moderate effect size. The need for replication, including a control group and follow-up, plus continued research on exercise protocols both well-tolerated and effective for older individuals and other specific groups, were discussed.

Relationship of feeling states after exercise and total mood disturbance over 10 weeks in formerly sedentary women

Changes in feeling states after exercise and changes in overall mood after a period of 10 weeks were correlated after participation in a supervised, moderate intensity resistance training program. 52 previously sedentary, asymptomatic women (M = 56 yr.) participated. Point biserial correlations were calculated between the 10-wk. change on the Profile of Mood States using the Total Mood Disturbance score as the continuous variable, and positive or negative change in feeling states after exercise, assessed via the Exercise-induced Feeling Inventory, being the dichotomous variable. Correlations were significant for both the total sample (rpb = −.49) and participants with high initial Total Mood Disturbance based on a median split (rpb = −.55). Participants with positive changes in their feeling states after exercise also showed a significantly greater decrease in Total Mood Disturbance than those with negative changes. Changes in Total Mood Disturbance were not significantly correlated with changes in resting heart rate over the 10 weeks. Discussion included limitations and, after replication, possible application of the findings.

MOOD STATES OF FORMERLY SEDENTARY YOUNGER AND OLDER WOMEN AT WEEKS 1 AND 10 OF A MODERATE EXERCISE PROGRAM

This study assessed and contrasted mood changes associated with a 10-wk. moderate exercise program in 64 formerly sedentary women of different ages. Analyses of covariance, with Week 1 mood scores as the covariates, indicated that the younger exercise group (n = 32; M age = 33 yr.) and older exercise group (n = 32; M age = 63 yr.) showed significantly (p < .05) more residual improvement in scores on McNair, Lorr, and Dropplemans Profile of Mood States Tension, Depression, Vigor, and Fatigue scales than a no-exercise control group (n = 32; M age = 48 yr.). There were no significant differences in amount of improvement between the younger and older exercise groups. Across both exercise groups, amount of mood score changes over 10 weeks were negatively correlated with initial mood scores (rs = –.22 to –.75). Limitations and research implications were discussed.

Sex differences in relations of cardiorespiratory and mood changes associated with self-selected amounts of cardiovascular exercise.

44 formerly sedentary men (n = 22) and women (n = 22) self-selected cardiovascular exercise intensities, durations, and frequencies for 12 wk. A mean of approximately 2 exercise sessions/week, for 28 to 29 min./session were completed, and small (ds = .30 to .35) but significant (p < .05) cardiorespiratory (VO2 max) improvements were found. Reductions in Depression and Tension scores on the Profile of Mood States were also significant (ps < .05) over the 12 wk. No sex differences were found for change on any of the variables of interest. Analysis showed no significant correlations between change on either Depression and Tension scores, and change in VO2 max, over the 12 wk. Limitations and the need for replication with a control group were discussed. The possible advantages of allowing new and returning exercisers to self-select initial physical activity amounts were discussed.

Relationship between Number of Exercise Counseling Sessions Attended and Adherence to a New Exercise Program

Attendance at treatment sessions based on cognitive-behavioral and social cognitive theory were significantly correlated with exercise session drop out (rpb = –.56) and attendance (rpb = .69) in 130 adults beginning new exercise programs.