James J. Bradac

A molecular view of powerful and powerless speech styles: Attributional consequences of specific language features and communicator intentions

Two studies are reported. The first study examined the extent to which seven forms of language were perceived as powerful and effective when used by an interviewee in a hypothetical job interview. Results suggested a five‐level model of linguistic power and effectiveness, which is independent of communicator sex. The second study examined the same seven linguistic features but in this case two dissimilar intentions were attributed to the interviewee: desire to appear sociable versus desire to appear authoritative. Results indicated that power of style interacted with communicator intention, qualifying to an extent the five‐level model suggested by Study 7. Again, effects were independent of communicator sex. Results of both studies showed that respondents made rather fine discriminations among powerful and powerless language forms, that these discriminations were quite stable, and that some ostensibly powerless forms were judged to be relatively powerful in fact.

Language style on trial: Effects of “powerful” and “powerless” speech upon judgments of victims and villains

Two studies are reported. The first examined consequences of “powerful”; and “powerless”; speech styles on attribution of fault to a defendant and plaintiff in a hypothetical courtroom context. A powerless style included hedges, intensifiers, polite forms, hesitation forms, and deictic phrases; a powerful style omitted these while including short or one‐word replies. Results suggested that subjects attributed greater fault to the high‐power style, regardless of whether the speaker was the plaintiff or defendant. Also, female subjects saw the alleged act as more serious when the speaker exhibited the high‐power style in the role of defendant. The second study included a high‐ or low‐power version of the testimony of a second speaker. In this case, subjects read two messages, contrasting in role (defendant vs. plaintiff) and power (high vs. low). Results for seriousness and fault were not replicated. In this case, power of style had a strong effect on judgments of communicator “internality.”; Results of bot...

Powerful Versus Powerless Language: Consequences for Persuasion, Impression Formation, and Cognitive Response:

Although the literature on the consequences of powerful and power-less language styles for impression formation is extensive, the persuasive effects of power of style have been neglected. Accordingly, a 2 x 2 x 2 experiment was conducted (strong vs. weak argument strength x high vs. low power language x relevant vs. irrelevant topic). Respondents read a message arguing for implementing comprehensive examinations for college seniors which served as a vehicle for the independent variables. Dependent measures consisted of scales assessing persuasion and communicator style/ability. Additionally, cognitive responses were assessed. Dependent measures for persuasion and communicator attributes yielded a three-factor solution: Persuasion, CompetencelControl and Sociability. Further analyses indicated that strong arguments were generally more persuasive than weak ones regardless of relevance, and power of style had no effect upon Persuasion. On the other hand, powerful versus powerless language had a strong effect upon ratings of communicator CompetencelControl and, in conjunction with argument strength, Sociability. Among other things, the cognitive response data indicated that persons were more likely to think about the powerless style than the style that was ostensibly powerful. The results offer little support for Petty and Cacioppos Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasive effects.

Ascribed Status, Lexical Diversity, and Accent: Determinants of Perceived Status, Solidarity, and Control of Speech Style

The effects of status ascriptions (high vs. low) and accent (standard American vs. Mexican-American) upon perceptions of speaker status and solidarity are examined. Consequences of the independent variables for a novel dependent variable, perceived control of speech style, are examined also. One hundred and twenty-two respondents rated one of eight message versions in a between-group design. Results indicated, among other things, that: (1) status ascriptions and accent combined additively to affect judgements of speaker status, as did status ascriptions and diversity; (2) lexical diversity and accent affected both solidarity judgements and status judgements interactively, although the nature of the interactive effect differed across measures; and (3) lexical diversity was an especially potent determinant of perceptions of control of speech style. It is suggested that a clear picture of linguistic and non-linguistic determinants of judgements of speaker status is emerging.

A Lay Theory of Relational Satisfaction with Best Friends

Three research questions were addressed to examine peoples lay beliefs regarding the causes of relational satisfaction among best friends. The first question dealt with the specific beliefs that people hold about satisfaction with a best friend. Forty-three sources of relational satisfaction were identified. The second question focused on the dimensions underlying peoples beliefs about satisfaction. Multidimensional scaling suggested that three general dimensions underlie peoples beliefs about satisfaction with a best friend. The third question examined the perceived causal structure underlying peoples beliefs about relational satisfaction. A network analysis revealed that people have a detailed and elaborate set of assumptions regarding the causal relations between the sources of satisfaction. Taken together, our results suggest that people have many, well-integrated beliefs about satisfaction in best friendships. Specifically, these beliefs are organized dimensionally and they are causally intertwined, constituting evidence for the existence of a lay theory of this relational outcome.

Two studies of the effects of linguistic diversity upon judgments of communicator attributes and message effectiveness

The authors conducted two studies on the effects of high and low linguistic diversity upon judgments of communicator attributes and message effectiveness. Generally, the first study demonstrated that low linguistic diversity negatively affects listeners’ evaluative judgments. These effects were independent of medium of presentation (oral vs. written) and of perceived situational formality (high vs. low). The second study demonstrated that the effects obtained in the previous study were produced by lexical diversity; differences in syntactic diversity were not related to differences in listeners’ judgments.

Lexical diversity and magnitude of convergent versus divergent style shifting-: Perceptual and evaluative consequences

Theorists have suggested that underlying particular instances of categorization of persons in terms of social class or social group membership there is a general scheme, which is perhaps universal (Brown, 1965), comprising ‘status’ on the one hand and the orthogonal dimension of ‘solidarity’ on the other (Giles and Ryan, 1982; Pittam and Gallois, 1986). Thus, one person may perceive another as being high or low in status or as being a close friend or a distant acquaintance, and usually with increasing status and closeness there will be a concommitant increase in positivity of evaluations (Giles and Powesland, 1975). Persons’ impressions of others along the dimensions of status and solidarity serve to reduce their uncertainty, especially in initial-interaction situations, while suggesting appropriate modes of verbal and non-verbal behaviour (Berger and Bradac, 1982; Berger and Calabrese, 1975). Some contexts are ‘status-stressing,’ some are ‘solidarity-stressing’ and some stress both dimensions (Ryan, 1979).

Reciprocal disclosures and language intensity: Attributional consequences

This study examined the personality attributions made of a second speaker when (1) he reciprocated or failed to reciprocate the intimacy level of a disclosure made by an initial speaker and when (2) he matched or failed to match the initial speakers level of language intensity. Results indicate that a speakers level of language intensity qualifies to some extent the positive judgments of reciprocated initimacy and the negative judgments of non‐reciprocated intimacy obtained in previous research. Other findings indicate that (1) high intimacy and high intensity result in attributions of high speaker internality and (2) a perceivers own tendency to disclose affects his or her judgments of high‐ and low‐intimacy messages which vary in language intensity.

Disclosing Self to Friends and Family: A Reexamination of Initial Questions.

This study reinvestigated questions raised by Sidney Jourard in the initial stages of research on self‐disclosure. Using new conceptualizations and measures, this study attempted to assess the viability of previous research conclusions. The study specifically investigated the effects of discloser sex, topic of disclosure, and the target of disclosure on five dimensions of reported self‐disclosure. With 104 undergraduate volunteers as subjects, 2 × 2 × 2 (sex by topic by target) analysis of variance and follow‐up tests revealed that disclosures to both parents were more positive but less honest, frequent, and intimate than to best same‐sex friend. Topic affected or interacted to affect three of the dimensions of disclosure while the sex variable interacted to affect only one. These results provide little support for the conclusions drawn by Jourard. Evidently, topic and target now function as constraints on the ways individuals reveal information about themselves.

Attitudes Toward Language: A Review of Speaker-Evaluation Research and a General Process Model

Language attitudes are typically inferred from hearers evaluative reactions to speech variations. Although they are central to human communication, their social scientific study has been reported mainly in journals outside of the communication discipline. This chapter first reviews the multidisciplinary work in the area that has looked to evaluations of speakers as a means of assessing language attitudes. Although this research has resulted in pragmatically interesting generalizations, more recent research and theorizing suggests that such generalizations may be limited due to assumptions and methodologies that neglect the complex process through which language attitudes reveal themselves. An emergent understanding of the speaker-evaluation process is discussed herein and represented by a recently developed model. Our assessment of the area concludes with suggested directions for future research.