James J. Gallagher

American Burn Association consensus conference to define sepsis and infection in burns.

Because of their extensive wounds, burn patients are chronically exposed to inflammatory mediators. Thus, burn patients, by definition, already have “systemic inflammatory response syndrome.” Current definitions for sepsis and infection have many criteria (fever, tachycardia, tachypnea, leukocytosis) that are routinely found in patients with extensive burns, making these current definitions less applicable to the burn population. Experts in burn care and research, all members of the American Burn Association, were asked to review the literature and prepare a potential definition on one topic related to sepsis or infection in burn patients. On January 20, 2007, the participants met in Tucson, Arizona to develop consensus for these definitions. After review of the definitions, a summary of the proceedings was prepared. The goal of the consensus conference was to develop and publish standardized definitions for sepsis and infection-related diagnoses in the burn population. Standardized definitions will improve the capability of performing more meaningful multicenter trials among burn centers.

Are topical antimicrobials effective against bacteria that are highly resistant to systemic antibiotics

An increasing number of bacteria are resistant to multiple systemic antibiotics. The purpose of this study was to determine if topical antimicrobials are still effective against multi-drug resistant organisms (MDROs). MDROs, including Acinetobacter, Pseudomonas, Klebsiella, Staphylococcus, and Enterococcus, were collected from four burn hospitals. The sensitivity of 47 MDROs to 11 commonly used topical agents (mafenide acetate, nystatin, mafenide + nystatin, silver nitrate, Dakin’s, polymyxin B, neomycin, polymyxin + neomycin, silver sulfadiazine, bacitracin, silver sulfadiazine + bacitracin) was tested using the agar well diffusion assay and compared with the sensitivity of 27 non-MDROs of similar genera. Overall 88% of the tests of the non-MDROs showed susceptibility to the topicals compared with 80% for the MDROs (P < .05). Specific findings included: all of the gram-positive non-MDROs were sensitive to bacitracin compared with only 67% of the MDROs (P < .05); 74% of the non-MDROs were sensitive to neomycin vs 26% of the MDROs (P < .01). Even for the susceptible isolates, the zones of inhibition were smaller for the MDROs than for the non-MDROs (P < .002), indicating decreased susceptibility of the MDROs. Specifically, while the MDRO Acinetobacter were sensitive to most of the topicals, the zones of inhibition for silvadene, silvadene + bacitracin, neomycin, and neomycin + polymyxin were significantly smaller (P < .001) for the Acinetobacter MDROs than the non-MDROs. Although many topicals are still effective against some MDROs, MDROs are more resistant to topicals than are non-MDROs. Some treatment assumptions based historically on the efficacy of topical antimicrobial agents against non-MDROs need to be re-evaluated for MDROs.

Closed-Loop and Decision-Assist Resuscitation of Burn Patients

Effective resuscitation is critical in reducing mortality and morbidity rates of patients with acute burns. To this end, guidelines and formulas have been developed to define infusion rates and volume requirements during the first 48 hours postburn. Even with these standardized resuscitation guidelines, however, over- and under-resuscitation are not uncommon. Two approaches to adjust infusion rate are decision-assist and closed-loop algorithms based on levels of urinary output. Specific decision assist guidelines or a closed-loop system using computer-controlled feedback technology that supplies automatic control of infusion rates can potentially achieve better control of urinary output. In a properly designed system, closed-loop control has the potential to provide more accurate titration rates, while lowering the incidence of over- and under-resuscitation. Because the system can self-adjust based on monitoring inputs, the technology can be pushed to environments such as combat zones where burn resuscitation expertise is limited. A closed-loop system can also assist in the management of mass casualties, another scenario in which medical expertise is often in short supply. This article reviews the record of fluid balance of contemporary burn resuscitation and approaches, as well as the engineering efforts, animal studies, and algorithm development of our most recent autonomous systems for burn resuscitation.

Can burn centers evacuate in response to disasters

On August 29, 2005, the Gulf Coast was hit by Hurricane Katrina, a category 4 storm. The storm was responsible for more than 1000 deaths and the displacement of hundreds of thousands of people. Hospitals in the city of New Orleans evacuated because of the complete collapse of infrastructure. This event influenced the decisions and actions taken to protect patients, families, and staff of a 30-bed pediatric burn center in the projected path of a second catastrophic hurricane 3 weeks later. Approximately 80 hours before projected landfall, the local government announced that a mandatory evacuation of the community surrounding the burn center would occur. A coordinated decision was made by administration, nursing, and medical staff to cancel upcoming clinics and elective surgery and to evacuate all 14 inpatients, 52 outpatients, and 66 guardians to other facilities. The evacuation plan was successfully completed in 32 hours. The eye wall of the hurricane passed 65 miles east of the burn center. No significant damage to the physical plant was noted. Repopulation of the hospital by patients and acceptance of new acute burn referrals began approximately 40 hours after the local government permitted the population to return to the area. No morbidity or mortality was attributed to the evacuation. Emergent evacuation of threatened burn centers can be safely accomplished with adequate prior planning of evacuation sites, and modes of transportation. An established communication command center plays a key role in this process.

Systemic Pythium insidiosum in a pediatric burn patient

Dori M. Franco *, Judith F. Aronson , Hal K. Hawkins , James J. Gallagher , Leonel Mendoza , Michael R. McGinnis , Natalie Williams-Bouyer f Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, United States Department of Pathology, Autopsy Division, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, United States Department of Surgery, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, United States Biomedical Laboratory Diagnostics, Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States Department of Pathology, Microbiology Division, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, United States Department of Pathology, Microbiology Division, University of Texas Medical Branch, and Clinical Laboratory Services, Shriners Hospitals for Children, Galveston, TX, United States b u r n s 3 6 ( 2 0 1 0 ) e 6 8 – e 7 1

Survey of care and evaluation of East African burn unit feasibility: an academic burn center exchange.

Weill Cornell Medical College in New York, partnered with Weill Bugando Medical College and Sekou Toure Regional Referral Hospital, in Mwanza, Tanzania, to consider the development of a burn unit there. This institutional partnership provided a unique opportunity to promote sustainable academic exchange and build burn care capacity in the East African region. A Weill Cornell burn surgeon and burn fellow collaborated with the Sekou Toure department of surgery to assess its current burn care capabilities and potential for burn unit development. All aspects of interdisciplinary burn care were reviewed and institutional infrastructure evaluated. Sekou Toure is a 375-bed regional referral center and teaching hospital of Weill Bugando Medical College. In 2010–2011, it admitted 5244 pediatric patients in total; 100 of these patients were burn-injured children (2% of admissions). There was no specific data kept on percentage of body surface burned, degree of burn, length of stay, or complications. No adult, operative, or outpatient burn data were available. There are two operating theaters. Patient’s families perform wound care with nursing supervision. Rehabilitation therapists consult as needed. Meals are provided three times daily by a central kitchen. Public health outreach is possible through village-based communication networks. Infrastructure to support the development of a burn care unit exists at Sekou Toure, but needs increased clinical focus, human resource capacity building, and record-keeping to track accurate patient numbers. A multidisciplinary center could improve record-keeping and outcomes, encourage referrals, and facilitate outreach through villages.

Neonate twin with staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome from a renal source.

Objective: To understand the underlying mechanism of exfoliative toxins causing staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome or Ritters Disease that predominantly affects newborns and infants, although it is sometimes found in adults. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome is typically diagnosed by the characteristic fluid-filled bullae together with superficial skin loss. A histopathological diagnosis may be made by looking for subcorneal acantholytic cleavage with minimal inflammation on biopsy, although this is not normally required. Exfoliative toxin A and B are both responsible for the “acantholytic” infection of Staphylococcus aureus as they target desmoglein-1 leading to loss of cell-to-cell cohesion and subsequent spread of infection. Other factors produced by S. aureus can cause a myriad of other problems including neutralization of antimicrobial peptides, inactivation of neutrophils, proteolysis, T-cell anergy, and immunosuppression. Design: Individual care report. Setting: Pediatric intensive care unit. Patient: We describe a normal male infant who was born at term and developed 100% total body surface area staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome on the 14th day of life with associated renal sepsis. Interventions: After cultures from the lesions, bloodstream, and urine were obtained, intravenous Vancomycin and Ceftriaxone were commenced. The initial lesions increased in size over a 36-hr period to cover the entire body surface; this was associated with a decline in hemodynamic status. Measurements and Main Results: Cultures from the urine and blood grew coagulase-positive S. aureus. An ultrasound scan revealed bilateral pyonephroses, which necessitated the placement of percutaneous nephrostomies with subsequent decompression of the collecting system. Conclusions: After the decompression hemodynamic status stabilized and over the ensuing 10 days, the patient made a full recovery with no scarring. No similar lesions were noticed on the infants twin brother. We discuss the recent developments in understanding the underlying mechanism of exfoliative toxins causing staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome, review current treatment guidelines, and outline the need for new therapeutic options.

Treatment of Infection in Burn Patients

Abstract Burn wounds are conduits for infections. From the inciting thermal trauma to finalization of therapy, burn patients are exposed to multiple drug-resistant organisms. This chapter presents the definitions and types of infections afflicting burn patients, from cellulitis and wound infections to pneumonias and bloodstream infections. Topical and systemic antimicrobials are covered, as well as specific etiologic bacteria, fungi, and viruses. A care algorithm is elaborated, centered on source control with early surgical excision and skin grafting augmented by culture-directed antimicrobial therapy. Regardless of the etiologic organism, the best intervention for both prophylaxis and treatment of infections in the burn patient is the prompt closure of burn wounds with skin.

Simulation of Tangential Excision: A Test for Construct Validity.

A foundational skill in burn surgery is tangential excision (TE). The purpose of this study was to develop a simulation model for TE, hypothesizing that simulation could be used in surgical training. TE simulation was created using the TE knife, foam, mineral oil, and base. Subjects, surgeons, or surgeons in training, were given a pre- and post-task questionnaire about experience with TE. Subjects were divided into three TE experience groups: novice—none, intermediate—some, and expert—TE in current or past practice. The task was to excise pre-marked rectangles, generating four excisional products (EPs). Evaluators blindly assessed performance by EP analysis using a novel scoring tool and reviewed videos using a modified objective structured assessment of technical skill (OSATS) rubric. Inter-rater reliabilities and P values were obtained, comparing Novice and Intermediate with Expert scores. Forty subjects completed the study: 16 were identified as TE novices, 17 as intermediates, and seven as experts. All EPs and videos were reviewed blindly by two evaluators using the EP scoring tool and OSATS methodology, respectively. Intraclass correlation coefficients were calculated to measure inter-rater reliabilities, which were acceptable (ICC => 0.42) for OSATS, time, and EP analysis: border and texture. Statistical differences between Novice and Expert scores were found (P < .0100, P < .0200, P < .0025, and P < .0005, respectively). Statistical differences between Intermediate and Expert scores were also found (P < .0100, P < .0200, P < .0100, and P < .0025, respectively). Post-simulation survey results showed experts 86% of the time agreeing or strongly agreeing that the simulation was similar to the clinical skin and 100% felt it would be a useful for training before clinical performance. Simulation for TE was successfully created to blindly discern level of TE experience. Participants agreed that simulation could play an essential role in burn surgical training.