James L. Christiansen

Aspects of the Natural History of the Yellow Mud Turtle Kinosternon flavescens (Kinosternidae) in Iowa: A Proposed Endangered Species

Kinosternon flavescens is a xeric adapted turtle; isolated populations are found in the midwestern United States associated with sandy soils and temporary ponds. Turtles at Big Sand Mound, Iowa, are active (aquatic) from late April to mid-July and aestivate terrestrially from mid-July to mid-August. Some turtles might resume activity later in August and early September before winter hibernation. Turtles feed aquatically from mid-May to mid-July. This represents the shortest annual feeding period reported for a turtle. In 1979, following a severe drought, the primary diet shifted from fishes and crayfish to snails. Spring Lake, presently a temporary pond, was occupied more extensively than the semi-permanent Beattys Pond. The latter probably provides some stability to the system during drought years. The turtle is associated with other sand prairie relict species and has been proposed as an endangered species.

DISTRIBUTION AND HABITATS OF TURTLES IN NEW MEXICO

Distributional and habitat data on nine species of New Mexico turtles are presented by locality maps and text. The states turtle fauna consists of Chelydra serpentina, Kinosternon flavescens, K. sonoriense, Terrapene ornata, Chry- semys picta, Pseudemys concinna, P. scripta elegans, P. scripta gaigae, Trionyx muticus, T. spiniferus emoryi, and T. spiniferus hartwegi. Active study of New Mexico turtles began in 1961 and since that time approximately 700 specimens have been added to the University of New Mexico collections. Specimens from other collections and published accounts were included in the locality maps for each species. The aquatic turtles are primarily distributed along the states princi- pal river systems but individual species show marked differences in their ability to survive away from permanent waters. The single terrestrial species, Terrapene ornata, is widely distributed in the state below about 6,600 feet. Dense populations of Terrapene occur in the grasslands of northeastern New Mexico as well as in relatively dry, sandy desert areas in the southeast but were not found on steep, rocky, mountain slopes, in dense woodlands, or in seemingly suitable habitats in northwestern New Mexico. Much of the herpetological collecting in the southwest prior to 1900 was done in conjunction with United States governmental surveying expeditions or military activities. These explorations had accompany- ing naturalists, who amassed sizeable collections, and their names were often used in the description of the animals they collected. Turtles, because of difficulty in collecting without specialized equip- ment, were absent or poorly represented in these early collections. Van Denburgh (1924), providing the first major contribution to the knowledge of the state herpetofauna, listed five species of turtles. The

Population genetics of Blanding's turtle (Emys blandingii) in the midwestern United States

Blanding’s turtle (Emys blandingii) has declined substantially in North America due to anthropogenic activities, leaving populations smaller and increasingly fragmented spatially. We sampled 212 turtles to evaluate variation at eight microsatellite loci within and among 18 populations of E. blandingii across its primary range in the midwestern United States (Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, and Nebraska). All loci and populations were highly polymorphic. Our analyses also detected considerable genetic structure within and among the sampled localities, and revealed ancestral gene flow of E. blandingii in this region north and east from an ancient refugium in the central Great Plains, concordant with post-glacial recolonization timescales. The data further implied unexpected ‘links’ between geographically disparate populations in Nebraska and Illinois. Our study encourages conservation decisions to be mindful of the genetic uniqueness of populations of E. blandingii across its primary range.

CHARACTERIZATION OF TESTUDINE MELANOMACROPHAGE LINEAR, MEMBRANE EXTENSION PROCESSES—CABLEPODIA—BY PHASE AND ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY

SummaryMelanomacrophages (MMs) are a component of an internal, pigmented cell system in liver and splenic tissues of some fishes, anurans, and reptiles. The cells have been found in centers or aggregates in sinusoids and are associated with cells capable of producing a peptide cytokine and immunoglobulins. A unique cell extension process has been observed in turtle MMs placed into cell culture, and this process has been studied by light and atomic force microscopy. These structures, referred to as cablepodia, are uniquely straight, narrow, and unbranching and appear to originate from growth cones opposite lamellipodia. Cablepodia were found to connect with other turtle MMs and fibroblasts forming cell networks. Dividing fibroblasts to which a cablepodium attached ceased cell division. The observations collectively suggest that a principal reason for aggregations of MMs in internal organs of lower vertebrates in their ability to form interconnected networks of cell processes for trapping and processing of particulate matter, cells and infectious organisms and, possibly, for the communication of cell signals and transfer of intracellular materials.

Declining Populations of Yellow Mud Turtles (Kinosternon flavescens) in Iowa, Illinois, and Missouri

Abstract Studies of the yellow mud turtle Kinosternon flavescens in the late 1970s and 1980s documented eight clusters of localities in nine counties in Illinois, five in four counties in Iowa, and five in two counties in Missouri. Sampling that began in 1995 verified continued existence of the species at only two localities in Illinois, two in Iowa, and one in Missouri. Severe declines have occurred in the largest population in each of these states. In all three states, lowered water levels, usually due to withdrawal of water from aquifers, have contributed at least partly to some of the declines. Water has disappeared from some ponds for multiple years. Other contributors are encroachment of woody plants on nesting habitats or between nesting areas and aquatic feeding areas, which often are associated with heavy predation on turtles and nests by mesopredators. Resumen Estudios hechos a fines de las décadas de1970 y 1980 han documentado ocho poblaciones de la tortuga Kinosternon flavescens en nueve condados de Illinois, cinco en cuatro condados de Iowa, y cinco en dos condados de Missouri. Muestreos que empezaron en 1995 han demostrado que la especie sigue en sólo dos localidades de Illinois, dos en Iowa, y una en Missouri. Una severa disminución ha ocurrido en las poblaciones más grandes en cada uno de los tres estados. En los tres estados, la severa disminución de los niveles del agua, debido a la extracción de agua de los acuíferos, ha contribuido parcialmente a las disminuciones. El agua ha desaparecido de algunos estanques por varios años. Otros factores son la invasión de plantas leñosas al hábitat de anidación, o entre las áreas de anidación y las áreas acuáticas de alimentación, áreas que frecuentemente están asociadas con la depredación fuerte, tanto de las tortugas como de los nidos, por depredadores de tamaño mediano.

Ecology of Georgetown Salamanders (Eurycea naufragia) Within the Flow of a Spring

Abstract The Georgetown salamander, Eurycea naufragia, is a permanently neotenic salamander known only from about a dozen surface springs and caves in Williamson County, Texas. Rapid urbanization places all known populations at risk and conservation strategies are hindered by a lack of information on the ecology of the species. To better understand requirements of microhabitat and spatial distribution of E. naufragia within flows of surface springs, we conducted counts of salamanders on the surface at one locality over a 12-month period. Numbers of salamanders and percentage of cover objects occupied by salamanders varied among months, with a general trend of higher abundance in spring and summer. Few juveniles were observed, and there was no strong seasonal trend in distribution of size of salamanders. Within the flow of the spring, abundance of salamanders decreased linearly with distance from origin of the spring. Salamanders were more likely to be under rocks than under other types of cover objects and they selected larger rocks. Larger salamanders occupied larger cover objects; rocks covering multiple salamanders were larger than those covering single salamanders.

Response of a Yellow Mud Turtle (Kinosternon flavescens Agassiz) Community to Habitat Change: Management Implications for a Nature Preserve

ABSTRACT: Yellow mud turtles (Kinosternon flavescens) have been studied in and around a nature preserve near Muscatine, Iowa, for over three decades. The deep sand prairie habitat, unusual for Iowa, has incurred a variety of human disturbances since the 19th century. The area has been managed for natural habitat for the last 40 years, initially by private hunt club (1970s) and now as a private conservation area (late 1970s to the present). The surrounding landscape either continues to suffer a variety of anthropogenic disturbances or was abandoned following disturbances during the 20th century. Recent survey data for yellow mud turtles, an Iowa endangered species, were compared with past surveys to determine efficacy of management practices and effects of habitat alteration on the species. Because yellow mud turtles require wetlands in spring for hydration, feeding, and mating, we specifically focused on impacts and management of former oxbow habitats once connected to the Mississippi River. We conclude that wetlands outside the preserve no longer contain populations of yellow mud turtles. Causes of decline include a history of severe environmental disturbance, in addition to perpetual populations of permanent water-adapted aquatic turtles (e.g., Chrysemys picta) and predatory fishes that either compete for food with yellow mud turtles or prey upon juveniles. Our studies validate the necessity of wetlands that are shallow enough for aquatic turtle and fish winterkills. However, the wetlands also require sufficient depth each spring to satisfy the hydration and feeding requirements for yellow mud turtles.