James M. Crick

The internationalization strategies of rapidly internationalizing high-tech UK SMEs: Planned and unplanned activities

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate aspects of causation and effectuation decision-making in respect of the planned and unplanned nature of the internationalization strategies of a small sample of rapidly internationalizing, high-tech UK small and medium enterprises (SMEs). These exhibit four different rates of scale of international intensity (percentage of overseas sales to total sales) and market scope (geographical coverage and commitment). Design/methodology/approach – Interviews with managers of 16 independently owned high-technology-oriented manufacturing SMEs were undertaken in this investigation to reduce the potential effect of bias from parental decision-making and firm size, also trade sectoral conditions. These were drawn from an existing database. Findings – Aspects of both causation and effectuation logic were evident in planned and unplanned aspects of decision-making. Moreover, industry factors were seen to affect internationalization strategies in various ways and not l...

The first export order: a marketing innovation revisited

This study reports on an investigation into what lies behind a firms first export order and revisits the questions posed in the classic article by Simmonds and Smith [(1968). British Journal of Marketing, 2, 93–100]. It concentrates on risk/reward considerations in decision-making. Interviews were undertaken with owner/managers who were the key decision-makers in 10 newly internationalising UK start-up firms, that is, in their first year of operation, in order to avoid recollections in respect of hindsight. The findings highlight that a variety of factors can affect the decision of owner/managers in small firms to start their internationalisation path. Decisions are made in the context of perceived risk/reward considerations regarding exploiting various opportunities; for example, what are considered to be affordable losses against respective owner/managers objectives and experience. The contribution of the study is that it employs an effectuation lens in respect of the first export decision.

Learning and decision making in marketing planning: a study of New Zealand vineyards

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate how decision making and learning are related to marketing planning among owner/managers with lifestyle in comparison to growth-oriented objectives in the New Zealand wine industry. Design/methodology/approach – The study reports on 12 interviews with owner/managers of New Zealand vineyards. The vineyards were small to medium sized and independently owned to avoid bias from parent company decision making within larger scale corporate wine producers. Findings – Different degrees of causation and effectuation-based decision making were found to exist among owner/managers starting from the nascent stage in their respective marketing planning processes. Learning to different degrees was evident in order to remain competitive in a climate of uncertainty and not least of which due to problematic exchange rates. An important issue influencing decision making was whether owner/managers were running the vineyard to maintain a lifestyle or a growth strategy; an i...

Coopetition at the sports marketing/entrepreneurship interface: A case study of a Taekwondo organisation

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to help develop the understanding of the nature of coopetition (collaboration as well as competition) and is set in the context of a Taekwondo organisation. Design/methodology/approach – Interviews were undertaken with 25 instructors in various clubs within New Zealand’s “International Taekwondo” (ITKD) together with 25 students and supplemented with triangulation against secondary data such as websites and media reports. Findings – The findings suggest that coopetition can be seen from various perspectives in order that the organisation as a whole benefits. Specifically, while the ITKD is a not-for-profit firm, individual clubs may compete for revenue from students joining them as opposed to rival clubs. However, clubs collaborate in various way such as once registered, students can train free at rival clubs and resources are to some extent pooled so the ITKD as a whole benefits, e.g. sending competitors overseas and bringing in senior people to undertake a promotio...

The facets, antecedents and consequences of coopetition: An entrepreneurial marketing perspective

Purpose The purpose of this study is to explore the facets, antecedents and consequences of coopetition using three dimensions of entrepreneurial marketing. Coopetition is the interplay between competition and cooperation in which companies seek to collaborate with their rivals with the aim of enhancing performance compared to if they operated independently. Design/methodology/approach This paper reports on 38 interviews across 25 firms competing in the New Zealand wine industry. Triangulation procedures were via primary and secondary methods. This data was analysed through a series of techniques to produce credible findings. Findings Coopetition is comprised of resource- and capability-sharing activities. These activities are driven by an industry-wide cooperative mind-set; also, firms having access to competitors’ resources and capabilities. Coopetition was found to increase performance in ways that would not be possible if firms did not collaborate with their rivals. Originality/value Previous studies have focused on the facets and consequences of coopetition rather than its antecedents. Whilst exploration of these facets was undertaken in this study to reinforce prior research, this paper also investigates the antecedents of coopetition underpinned by the resource-based theory to contribute to the entrepreneurial marketing literature.

An appreciative inquiry into the first export order

Purpose – This study aims to report on an investigation into decision-making leading to a UK firm’s first export order. It demonstrates the application of appreciative inquiry (AI) as an underutilised research method in marketing investigations. Design/methodology/approach – An AI research approach was undertaken in a firm that had not started exporting at the commencement of the study whereby the interventionist approach allowed the management team to overcome negative perceptions in their decision-making. From a research perspective, marketing decision-making could be understood in real time as opposed to in hindsight. Findings – While the key decision-maker is likely to be the owner/manager in small newly internationalising firms, a variety of factors will affect the decision to start exporting including the influence of the management team. In particular, the management team’s perceptions towards a combination of effectuation- and causation-based decision-making where risk/reward considerations in exp...

Risks/rewards and an evolving business model: a case study of a small lifestyle business in the UK tourism sector

The purpose of this study is to investigate the need for an evolving business model that accounts for social, as well as business-related risks/rewards considerations, that is, for owner-managers with lifestyle as opposed to growth-oriented objectives.,The methodological approach undertaken involved in-depth interviews with the firm’s owner-managers, supplemental interviews with members of staff, observation, plus examining documents from secondary sources. Data gathering involved a period of three years to account for an evolving business model over time.,The findings from an instrumental case study demonstrate the need to adapt a firm’s business model in the light of changing circumstances. Additionally, in the context of owner-managers with lifestyle as opposed to growth-oriented objectives, to account for social in addition to business-related considerations in planning activities.,The originality of the study is to incorporate a longitudinal case study in to the entrepreneurial marketing literature. Specifically, this offers implications for business support organisations that advise prospective owner-managers; that is, in respect of the need for effective planning in formulating an evolving and enduring business model. Implications also highlight in a business sense, that turnaround of a poorly performing firm may be possible, for example, to overcome initial inadequate marketing planning. However, for owner-managers with lifestyle as opposed to growth-oriented objectives, a combination of both business and social factors need consideration to maintain a work/life balance. A venture that relies on personal and business relationships may not be viable if the partners cannot work together, no matter if the venture is performing well.

‘Lean Start-Up’ Practices: Initial Internationalization and Evolving Business Models

This chapter reports on an investigation into what lies behind a firm’s first export order; a topic having received a good deal of interest in earlier studies. It draws on the lean start-up studies that has been relatively under-utilized in the existing literature and in particular focuses on the extent to which owner/managers employ evolving business models. Data were collected from interviews with key decision-makers in ten newly internationalizing UK start-up firms operating in niche B2B sectors with limited financial resources; that is, in their first year of operation. The findings highlight that varying degrees of lean start-up practices were employed by the owner/managers, with all ten providing some consideration of aspects within their respective business model when commencing an internationalization path. The contribution of the chapter is to offer a lean start-up perspective to help explain considerations that facilitate a firm’s internationalization path together with avenues for future research.

Angel investors' predictive and control funding criteria: the importance of evolving business models

This study aims to investigate the question involving what factors affect angel investors’ decision-making in funding new start-ups with specific reference to their evolving business models. Without funding and access to networks and experience, certain entrepreneurs will not get their business model through the start-up phase.,Data arise from 20 semi-structured interviews with angel investors in New Zealand plus supplementary interviews with business incubator managers and textual data.,The findings suggest a degree of causation-based decision-making, in that certain linear thinking was evident. The implication is that, without the ability of the entrepreneurs to convince the investors about key criteria in their decision-making, investment is unlikely. Nevertheless, a degree of effectuation-based decision-making was also evident, the implication being investors having to balance risk/reward decisions in the context of their own perceptions of affordable losses against an evolving business model. However, angel investors may take on co-investment, including from overseas, that takes decision-making away from management teams.,The study draws attention to the need to consider entrepreneurial ecosystems in angel investor’s decision-making and especially those with a small domestic market that may require management teams to look for scalability internationally. Furthermore, an effectuation lens contributes to knowledge in respect of predictive and control criteria, in particular, assessing risks and rewards against affordable losses involving an evolving business model.

Teaching marketing to non-marketers: some experiences from New Zealand and the UK

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore how marketing can be taught to students originating from non-marketing or non-business backgrounds (non-marketers), so that academics can engage such students in lectures and tutorials. Design/methodology/approach The research design involved a qualitative methodology using data from two undergraduate marketing courses (one in New Zealand and one in the UK) that contained a large proportion of non-marketing students. Data were collected from a combination of empirical and archival sources and were analysed using self-reflection techniques, alongside other checks for methodological credibility. Findings When teaching marketing to non-marketing students, it is important to integrate theory with practice to help their learning (e.g. through practical case studies). Marketing educators must also maximise their interactivity with their students and have in-class discussions to engage the cohort. Further, lecturers and tutors should relate marketing theories and concepts with non-business subjects to demonstrate the subject’s relevance to students with limited commercial knowledge. These teaching and learning strategies were important for students intending to become entrepreneurs after graduating from university, as well as those planning to enter paid employment. Originality/value Prior studies have focussed on teaching marketing to specialist marketing students; however, they have scarcely considered how educators can teach non-specialist marketing to students with non-marketing and non-business backgrounds. This viewpoint solves this research problem, by discussing the best ways that academics can maximise such students’ engagement. It is proposed that the main way that non-marketers can be engaged is through linking marketing with their subjects-of-origin, to demonstrate how marketing activities apply to all organisations and should not be overlooked. A framework is presented, based on the empirical data, to help academics teach marketing to non-marketers. This paper ends with some directions for future research.