James M. Marr

Tip enhanced Raman scattering: plasmonic enhancements for nanoscale chemical analysis

Abstract Tip enhanced Raman scattering (TERS) is an emerging technique that uses a metalized scanning probe microscope tip to spatially localize electric fields that enhances Raman scattering enabling chemical imaging on nanometer dimensions. Arising from the same principles as surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), TERS offers unique advantages associated with controling the size, shape, and location of the enhancing nanostructure. In this article we discuss the correlations between current understanding of SERS and how this relates to TERS, as well as how TERS provides new understanding and insights. The relationship between plasmon resonances and Raman enhancements is emphasized as the key to obtaining optimal TERS results. Applications of TERS, including chemical analysis of carbon nanotubes, organic molecules, inorganic crystals, nucleic acids, proteins, cells and organisms, are used to illustrate the information that can be gained. Under ideal conditions TERS is capable of single molecule sensitivity and sub-nanometer spatial resolution. The ability to control plasmonic enhancements for chemical analysis suggests new experiments and opportunities to understand molecular composition and interactions on the nanoscale.

Imaging Electric Fields in SERS and TERS Using the Vibrational Stark Effect.

Electric fields associated with Raman enhancements are typically inferred from changes in the observed scattering intensity. Here we use the vibrational Stark effect from a nitrile reporter to determine the electric field dependent frequency shift of cyanide (CN) on a gold (Au) surface. Electroplated Au surfaces with surface enhanced Raman (SERS) activity exhibit larger Stark shifts near the edge and in areas with large roughness. The Stark shift is observed to correlate with intensity of a co-adsorbed thiophenol molecule. Gap-mode Tip enhanced Raman scattering (TERS), using a Au nanoparticle tip, show dramatic shifts in the CN stretch that correlate to enhancement factors of 1013 in the gap region. The observed peak widths indicate the largest fields are highly localized. Changes in the nitrile stretch frequency provide a direct measurement of the electric fields in SERS and TERS experiments.

The role of lateral tension in calcium-induced DPPS vesicle rupture.

We assess the role of lateral tension in rupturing anionic dipalmitoylphosphatidyserine (DPPS), neutral dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC), and mixed DPPS-DPPC vesicles. Binding of Ca(2+) is known to have a significant impact on the effective size of DPPS lipids and little effect on the size of DPPC lipids in bilayer structures. In the present work we utilized laser transmission spectroscopy (LTS) to assess the effect of Ca(2+)-induced stress on the stability of the DPPS and DPPC vesicles. The high sensitivity and resolution of LTS has permitted the determination of the size and shape of liposomes in solution. The results indicate a critical size after which DPPS single shell vesicles are no longer stable. Our measurements indicate Ca(2+) promotes bilayer fusion up to a maximum diameter of ca. 320 nm. These observations are consistent with a straightforward free-energy-based model of vesicle rupture involving lateral tension between lipids regulated by the binding of Ca(2+). Our results support a critical role of lateral interactions within lipid bilayers for controlling such processes as the formation of supported bilayer membranes and pore formation in vesicle fusion. Using this free energy model we are able to infer a lower bound for the area dilation modulus for DPPS (252 pN/nm) and demonstrate a substantial free energy increase associated with vesicle rupture.

Optical Fluorescence Microscopy for Spatially Characterizing Electron Transfer across a Solid-Liquid Interface on Heterogeneous Electrodes

Heterogeneous catalytic materials and electrodes are used for (electro)chemical transformations, including those important for energy storage and utilization.1, 2 Due to the heterogeneous nature of these materials, activity measurements with sufficient spatial resolution are needed to obtain structure/activity correlations across the different surface features (exposed facets, step edges, lattice defects, grain boundaries, etc.). These measurements will help lead to an understanding of the underlying reaction mechanisms and enable engineering of more active materials. Because (electro)catalytic surfaces restructure with changing environments,1 it is important to perform measurements in operando. Sub-diffraction fluorescence microscopy is well suited for these requirements because it can operate in solution with resolution down to a few nm. We have applied sub-diffraction fluorescence microscopy to a thin cell containing an electrocatalyst and a solution containing the redox sensitive dye p-aminophenyl fluorescein to characterize reaction at the solid-liquid interface. Our chosen dye switches between a nonfluorescent reduced state and a one-electron oxidized bright state, a process that occurs at the electrode surface. This scheme is used to investigate the activity differences on the surface of polycrystalline Pt, in particular to differentiate reactivity at grain faces and grain boundaries. Ultimately, this method will be extended to study other dye systems and electrode materials.