James P. O'Donnell

Long-Term Follow-up Studies of Learning-Disabled Persons

From several different perspectives, the question of long-term outcomes for learning-disabled children is an important one. Answers to scientific questions about the nature and developmental course of learning disabilities, as well as the resolution of policy issues concerning the allocation of resources for intervention, may depend on results from follow-up studies of learning-disabled persons. Unfortunately, different follow-up studies have produced a variety of conflicting results. Through a careful analysis of the methodologies employed in existing studies, this months Topical Review not only shows why the research has produced inconsistent results, but also shows how some of these inconsistencies can be resolved. A final contribution of this article is to point out the need for specific methodologies in future follow-up research with learning-disabled children.—J.K.T.

Construct validity of neuropsychological tests of conceptual and attentional abilities

In a mixed sample of community-living adults, this study examined the construct validity of five neuropsychological tests: Category Test (CAT), Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task (PASAT), Visual Search and Attention Test (VSAT) and Trail Making Test: Part B (TMT-B). Principal components analyses showed that PASAT, VSAT, and TMT-B defined an attention factor and that CAT and WCST defined a conceptual factor. The results were discussed in terms of common interpretations of these procedures as well as in terms of Mirskys (1989) components of attention.

Behavior Problems of preschool children: Dimensions and congenital correlates

Factor analysis of a revised Behavior Problem Checklist for a sample of preschool children yielded six oblique primary factors and two orthogonal second-order factors. Scores on these factors were correlated with activity level, gross- and fine-motor incoordination, minor physical anomalies, and sociability. There were sex differences and factor differences in the resulting patterns of correlations. The patterns of correlations also indicated that the six primary factors could be collapsed into two broad (Conduct and Personality) and two narrow (Distractibility and Attention Seeking) factors.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Score Patterns for Learning Disabled Young Adults

The present investigation used the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale to compare the cognitive profiles of learning disabled and control young adults. Consistent with earlier research using the WISC and WISC-R, the Information, Digit Span, and Digit Symbol (i.e., Coding) subtests contribute substantially and independently to group differentiation. Bannatynes Sequential factor also discriminates between these groups. These subtest and Bannatyne factor group differences obtain for both average-IQ (≤109) and high-IQ (≤110) young adults. These results suggest that the deficits observed in LD children and adolescents persist into early adulthood.

Assessing Adult ADHD Using a Self-Report Symptom Checklist

The self-ratings of DSM-IV ADHD symptoms by adults reporting a previous ADHD diagnosis were contrasted with ratings by controls matched for age and sex. Adults previously diagnosed with ADHD endorsed significantly more symptoms of inattention and of hyperactivity–impulsivity. Specifically, 13 of the 18 DSM-IV ADHD symptoms were endorsed more frequently by the group previously diagnosed with ADHD than by the control group. Predictive power analysis showed that persons endorsing ADHD symptoms were highly likely to have reported a prior ADHD diagnosis. Finally, the data suggested that the DSM-IV diagnostic criteria of 6 symptoms of inattention or 6 symptoms of hyperactivity–impulsivity could be appropriately applied during adult ADHD assessment.

Classification of children's behavior problems: Clinical and quantitative approaches

Children diagnosed Conduct Disorder, Attention Deficit Disorder, or Anxiety Disorder by DSM-III criteria were compared to contrast groups of Physically Disabled and Normal children using the Conners Teacher Rating Scale (CTRS). Discriminant function analyses of the CTRS ratings yielded accurate classification (67% correct) only when Conduct was combined with Attention Deficit and Normals were combined with Physically Disabled. The teacher raters seemed to be describing the children as behaviorally disordered with and without hyperactivity. The data also suggest that Attention Deficit Disorder is part of a broader Conduct Problems dimension.

Multiple‐group factor analysis of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children

Confirmatory factor analyses were performed on the intercorrelations among the 12 tests of the WISC and WISC-R separately for age levels 7.5, 10.5, and 13.5 to test Wechslers (1958) hypothesis that verbal and performance factors underlie these tests. At all three age levels, verbal and performance factors that accounted for approximately 50% of the total variance emerged clearly. These results provide strong empirical support for Wechslers hypothesis.

Construct Validation of Children's Behavior Problem Dimensions: Relationship to Activity Level, Impulsivity, and Soft Neurological Signs

A construct validation study of dimensions of childrens behavior problems was carried out with use of multiple linear regression. The Ss were 76 latency-aged boys in residential treatment. The dimensions involved were Conduct Disorder and Inadequacy-Immaturity. The predictor variables were activity level, impulsivity, and soft signs of neurological damage. Results indicated that Conduct Disorder was significantly predicted by activity level, in combination with impulsivity. Inadequacy-Immaturity was significantly predicted by activity level and soft signs. A third dimension, Personality Disorder, was found to be uncorrelated with the three predictor variables.

Lateralized Sensorimotor Asymmetries in Normal, Learning-Disabled and Brain-Damaged Young Adults

Left-right asymmetries in sensorimotor abilities (based on the Tactile Finger Localization, Fingertip Number Writing, Finger Tapping, Grip Strength, and Tactual Performance Tests of the Halstead-Reitan Battery) were compared among groups of 30 normal, 60 learning-disabled, and 20 brain-damaged adults aged 17 to 29 yr. The normal and learning-disabled groups (which did not differ) had significantly fewer asymmetries than the brain-damaged group. However, 36% of the learning-disabled group who had a Halstead Impairment Index ≥ 0.4, also had significantly more sensorimotor asymmetries than the normals. These results support the idea of an association between neurobehavioral deficits and learning disabilities for this age group.

Relationship between minor physical anomalies and "soft signs" of brain damage.

Several investigations have drawn attention to the possible etiological significance for childrens behavior disorders of such organismic characteristics as soft neurological signs of brain damage and minor physical anomalies ( 1 , 3, 4 ) . Although both soft neurological signs and minor physical anomalies have been related to the same disorders, only one study ( 5 ) has attempted to determine whether these variables are correlated. Although soft signs and anomalies are both assumed to reflect a common underlying factor, such as congenital abnormality, no relationship was obtained between these variables. However, the absence of a correlation between presence of anomalies and soft signs may have been a function of the item content of the soft-sign examination used by Quinn and Rapoport. Half of their examination was composed of gross motor coordination items, e.g., balance on one foot; heel to toe walk. Such items may reflect a slowed developmental rate rather than neurological abnormality. The present study attempted to clarify the relationship between minor physical anomalies, soft signs, and gross motor coordination by separating items for gross motor coordination from those for soft neurological signs. The subjects were 76 boys from a residential treatment center. Their ages ranged from 8-3 to 12-9 yr. ( M = 10-6 yr.) and their IQs on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children ranged from 76 to 118 ( M = 9 0 ) . None of the boys were psychotic or obviously brain damaged. All were from lower-socioeconomic-class families. The majority were black, but many were Puerto Rican or of mixed parentage. All of the boys were administered an abbreviated examination of soft neurological signs ( 4 ) , an examination for minor physical anomalies ( G ) , and the gross motor subtest from the McCarthy Scales of Childrens Abilities ( 2 ) . Product-moment correlations were computed among all the variables. A significant value obtained between soft signs and anomalies ( 7 7 , = .28, p < . 01 ) . This correlation confirms the expectation that these variables should be linked due to a common underlying factor such as congenital abnormality. Significantly correlated also were soft signs and motor coordination ( f a = -.43, p < . 01 ) , which may reflect the element of motor execution common to both sets of items.