James R. Rest

Postconventional Moral Thinking : A Neo-kohlbergian Approach

Contents: Preface. Overview of Our Neo-Kohlbergian Approach. Psychological and Philosophical Challenges to Kohlbergs Approach. A Neo-Kohlbergian Approach Based on the DIT. Validity and Reliability Studies of the DIT. New Issues, New Theory, New Findings. Stages or Schemas? Integrating With the Domain Approach. Integrating With the Cultural Psychology Approach. Summary. Appendices: The ATHRI. Services and Materials Available From the Minnesota Center.

DIT2 : Devising and testing a revised instrument of moral judgment

The Denning Issues Test, Version 2 (DIT2), updates dilemmas and items, shortens the original Defining Issues Test (DIT1) of moral judgment, and purges fewer participants for doubtful response reliability. DIT1 has been used for over 25 years. DIT2 makes 3 changes: in dilemmas and items, in the algorithm of indexing, and in the method of detecting unreliable participants. With all 3 changes, DIT2 is an improvement over DIT1. The validity criteria for DIT2 are (a) significant age and educational differences among 9th graders, high school graduates, college seniors, and students in graduate and professional schools; (b) prediction of views on public policy issues (e.g., abortion, religion in schools, rights of homosexuals, womens roles); (c) internal reliability; and (d) correlation with DIT1. However, the increased power of DIT2 over DIT1 is primarily due to the new methods of analysis (a new index called N2, new checks) rather than to changes in dilemmas, items, or instructions. Although DIT2 presents updated dilemmas and smoother wording in a shorter test (practical improvements), the improvements in analyses account for the validity improvements.

Does Moral Education Improve Moral Judgment? A Meta-Analysis of Intervention Studies Using the Defining Issues Test:

A review was conducted of 55 studies of education interventions designed to stimulate development in moral judgment. All studies used the Defining Issues Test. Various subject groups were involved (junior and senior high school students, college and graduate students, adults), various types of programs were employed (group discussion of moral dilemmas, psychological development programs, social studies and humanities courses), and the duration of the programs varied (a few hours to a year-long program). The principal findings from meta-analysis indicate that the dilemma discussion and psychological development programs produce modest overall effect sizes, that treatments of about 3 to 12 weeks are optimal, and that programs with adults (24 years and older) produce larger effect sizes than with younger subjects; however, significant effect sizes are obtained with all groups.

Designing and validating a measure of moral judgment: Stage preference and stage consistency approaches

The Defining Issues Test (DIT) of moral judgment is discussed in light of the recent challenge by G. Lind (1995) with the Moral Judgment Test (MJT), which is widely used in Europe. The 2 tests represent alternative methods as well as support different conclusions about moral judgment. The key difference is a stage-consistency (MJT) vs. a stage-preference (DIT) approach. Construct validity is defined in terms of 7 types of studies, and the approaches are compared. The stage-preference approach systematically outperforms the stage-consistency approach. Benchmarking by using classic studies in moral judgment illustrates an empirical, multistudy, quantitative approach to moral judgment research.

A Neo-Kohlbergian Approach to Morality Research

Kohlbergs work in moral judgement has been criticised by many philosophers and psychologists. Building on Kohlbergs core assumptions, we propose a model of moral judgement (hereafter the neo-Kohlbergian approach) that addresses these concerns. Using 25 years of data gathered with the Defining Issues Test (DIT), we present an overview of Minnesotas neo-Kohlbergian approach, using Kohlbergs basic starting points, ideas from Cognitive Science (especially schema theory), and developments in moral philosophy.

A Neo-Kohlbergian Approach: The DIT and Schema Theory

Abstract“Macromorality” concerns the formal structure of society, as defined by institutions, rules, and roles. “Micromorality” concerns the particular face-to-face relations that people have in everyday life. Kohlbergian theories are most useful for issues of macromorality. The Defining Issues Test (DIT) derives from Kohlbergs approach but makes several departures, including defining cognitive structures in terms of schemas instead of stages, reformulating the definition of postconventional moral thinking, and using different research strategies. The validity of the DIT is based on seven criteria (briefly discussed), and hundreds of studies have produced significant trends. Recent research derived from schema theory produces novel phenomena that link our theory of moral schemas more closely with information processing and decision making.

Beyond the Promise: A Perspective on Research in Moral Education

Changing concerns and ideological shifts in American society produce different emphases in moral education. We argue that different approaches address different dimensions of development. If viewed as complementary rather than contradictory, we may be able to move beyond ideological and philosophical disputes to solid theory-building based on empirical findings. In proposing an action program for moral education that incorporates research, we draw upon lessons learned from the Head Start movement of the 1960s. In defining researchable variables, we recommend the Four Component Model (sensitivity, judgment, motivation, character) instead of the usual tripartite model (thinking, feeling, acting).

Age trends in judging moral issues: A review of cross-sectional, longitudinal, and sequential studies of the Defining Issues Test.

REST, JAMES R.; DAVISON, MARK L.; and ROBBINS, STEVEN. Age Trends in Judging Moral Issues: A Review of Cross-sectional, Longitudinal, and Sequential Studies of the Defining Issues Test. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1978, 49, 263-279. Cross-sectional data on several thousand high school, college, and graduate students from all regions of the United States show striking differences on the Defining Issues Test (DIT) when grouped by age-education level. Adults show stronger positive relationships with years of education than with chronological age. Longitudinal studies show that individuals over 2and 4-year intervals generally show decreases in lower stages and increases in higher stages. Both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies suggest a general plateau in development in early adulthood and after formal education. Sequential studies indicate that generational effects do not account for age trends. Similarly, sampling biases and testing effects do not seem to be serious artifacts. The evidence supports Kohlbergs general model of moral development and the validity of the DIT as an assessment instrument.

Why Does College Promote Development in Moral Judgement

Abstract Evidence is reviewed showing that college attendance is associated with development in moral judgement. Six interpretations of why college has this effect are discussed: (1) simple age/maturation; (2) socialization; (3) learning specific knowledge or skill; (4) generalized understanding; (5) intellectual stimulation; (6) self‐selection. Findings from longitudinal, experimental, correlational, educational and life experience studies are used to evaluate the plausibility of each interpretation. The last three interpretations are favoured over the first three.

Moral judgment development: The effects of education and occupation

Data from the Rest longitudinal study of moral judgment development were used to (i) consolidate past research into a single process model of moral judgment development, and (ii) assess the relative contributions of education and work to moral judgment development. Subjects were 102 individuals who were first interviewed in 1972–1974 and were followed up in 1983. A general model was specified which included moral judgment development in adolescence, dedication, educational attainment, occupational attainment, fulfilling career, and adult moral judgment development. The model was tested on the total sample and in a subsamples analysis that examined the unique pathways to moral development of subsamples which had either completed 2 years or more of college (higher education) or had completed less than 2 years of college (lower education). The general model confirmed that both education and occupation play important roles in the explanation of adult moral judgment development; the subsamples analysis suggested that work-related variables were the most important determinants of development in the lower education group and that education was the most important determinant of the higher education group.