James S. Gardner

LOCAL KNOWLEDGE IN THE ASSESSMENT OF RESOURCE SUSTAINABILITY: CASE STUDIES IN HIMACHAL PRADESH, INDIA, AND BRITISH COLUMBIA, CANADA

The knowledge of local resource users and managers about the biophysical, socioeconomic, and cultural-historical elements of their immediate environment plays a significant role in determining the long-term sustainability of those resources. This paper reports on the results of two case studies from high mountain areas, one in the Upper Beas River watershed of the In- dian Himalaya, and the other in the Arrow Lakes area of the Canadian Cordillera. Specifically, this paper describes sustainability indicators which were enumerated by local people in two differing cultural-historical, but environmentally similar, contexts. These indicators may be reflective of local, indigenous knowledge about the environment and therefore may be of significance in impact assessment and monitoring environmental change. Results from the Upper Beas watershed reveal a highly discriminated set of indicators which may be grouped as: forest cover in- dicators; forest-linked indicators; forest management indicators; agricultural livelihood indicators; and socioeconomic indicators. Local people demonstrated a very precise knowledge of the state of the biophysical resources of their village use areas. Specific in- dicators identified include: forest cover area (decreasing), forest species diversity (some species such as deodar decreasing), forest tree density (decreasing), consistency of water flow (decreasing) and frequency of avalanches and slides (increasing). These are all indicators which can be measured and verified independently of local knowledge. All suggest declining sustainability. Residents in the Arrow Lakes area demonstrated much less precise knowledge of biophysical indicators of sustainability. They enumerated a set of indicators which emphasized institutional arrangements for forest and resource management. For example, few respondents identified the extent of forest cover as important whereas the majority identified forest/land use rules in place as being important indicators of sustainability. In both case studies, people mentioned a number of socioeconomic factors as being important indica- tors of sustainability.

An estimate of snow avalanche debris transport, Kaghan Valley, Himalaya, Pakistan

Debris transport by snow avalanches in the front ranges of the Himalaya in northern Pakistan is described using estimates of sediment concentration in avalanche snow deposits. Data were collected from two end-of-season avalanche deposits in Kaghan Valley. Sediment concentration estimates and measurements of avalanche deposit volumes are used to produce estimates of total sediment load. From these, deposit area accretion values of 0.74 and 0.21 mm for the two deposits representing the 1986/87 avalanche season are derived.

Institutional responses to development pressures: Resilience of social-ecological systems in Himachal Pradesh, India

SUMMARY In the Kullu District, Himachal Pradesh, India, economic and urban growth, and diversification have increased pressure on forests and forest-based social-ecological systems. As in many Himalayan regions, livelihood sustainability is linked to forest resources, products and services. Recent development in the region, to which these systems may be vulnerable, brings into question environmental and livelihood sustainability. This paper examines the resilience of integrated systems of people and nature, or social-ecological systems, in the face of development pressures by evaluating a number of local and state-level institutional responses. Resilience, which describes the ability of the social-ecological systems to adapt to change by buffering shocks, improving self-organization and increasing capacity for learning, is an essential quality for sustainable development. Institutional responses which positively contribute to resilience and sustainability include the work of mahila mandals in forest management, adoption of Joint Forest Management (JFM) policies and practices, upholding rules, strengthening local institutions, establishing firewood depots and adopting alternative energy sources. Institutional failures brought about by the lack of rule enforcement and corruption erode resilience. The analysis of institutional responses helps to identify areas where capacity exists and areas in which capacity building is needed to produce resilient social-ecological systems and therefore, sustainable development.

Accelerated Tourism Development And Its Impacts In Kullu-Manali, H.P., India

Accelerated growth of tourism in the Kullu District of Himachal Pradesh in the Himalaya over the past decade has had substantial impact on the local society, economy and environment. Based on research focused in Manali and environs over this period, growth, development and impacts are described and explained by the unusual geopolitical and other factors which pertain in this area. The analysis shows that the rapid rate of growth which occurred in the early- to mid-1990s has not continued, that the current level of tourism activity may not be sustainable, and that the physical and cultural attractions of the area are compromised by some of the impacts of tourism. The Kullu District contains spectacular mountain scenery and a fascinating cultural heritage with deep historical roots. For centuries it has attracted visitors and has catered to travellers and traders. From the beginning of the 1990s, violent conflict in Kashmir, upgrading of National Highway 21, improvement in communications, effective marketing, and growth of the Indian economy all have contributed to a very rapid growth in tourist visitations and supporting infrastructure which has occurred with both positive and negative effects.

Characteristics and Mitigation of the Snow Avalanche Hazard in Kaghan Valley, Pakistan Himalaya

Snow avalanche hazards in mountainous areas of developing countries have received scant attention in the scientific literature. The purpose of this paper is to describe this hazard and mitigative measures in Kaghan Valley, Pakistan Himalaya, and to review alternatives for future reduction of this hazard. Snow avalanches have long posed a hazard and risk to indigenous populations of the Himalaya and Trans-Himalaya mountains. Land use intensification due to population growth, new transportation routes, military activity and tourism is raising levels of risk. The history of land use in the study area is such that investigations of avalanche hazard must rely on different theoretical bases and data than in most industrialised countries. Despite the intensive use of valley-bottom land which is affected by avalanches, a number of simple measures are currently employed by the indigenous population to mitigate the hazard. Out-migration during the winter months is the most important one. During the intensive use period of summer avalanche-transported snow provides numerous resources for the population. In Kaghan the avalanche hazard is increasing primarily as a result of poorly located new buildings and other construction projects. The large scale of avalanche activity there rules out any significant improvement or protection of the currently difficult winter access. Instead, future mitigation of the hazard should focus on protecting the small number of winter inhabitants and minimising property damage.

Systems for hazards identification in high mountain areas: An example from the Kullu District, western Himalaya

Methods and techniques for the identification, monitoring and management of natural hazards in high mountain areas are enumerated and described. A case study from the western Himalayan Kullu District in Himachal Pradesh, India is used to illustrate some of the methods. Research on the general topic has been conducted over three decades and that in the Kullu District has been carried out since 1994. Early methods of hazards identification in high mountain areas involved intensive and lengthy fieldwork and mapping with primary reliance on interpretation of landforms, sediments and vegetation thought to be indicative of slope failures, rock falls, debris flows, floods and accelerated soil surface erosion. Augmented by the use of airphotos and ad hoc observations of specific events over time, these methods resulted in the gradual accumulation of information on hazardous sites and the beginnings of a chronology of occurrences in an area. The use of historical methods applied to written and photographic material, often held in archives and libraries, further improved the resolution of hazards information. In the past two decades, both the need for, and the ability to, accurately identify potential hazards have increased. The need for accurate information and monitoring comes about as a result of rapid growth in population, settlements, transportation infrastructure and intensified land uses and, therefore, risk and vulnerability in mountain areas. Ability has improved as the traditional methods of gathering and manipulating data have been supplemented by the use of remote sensing, automated terrain modeling, global positioning systems and geographical information systems. This paper focuses on the development and application of the latter methods and techniques to characterize and monitor hazards in high mountain areas.

DISCHARGE AND SEDIMENT-LOAD CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HILDA ROCK-GLACIER STREAM, CANADIAN ROCKY MOUNTAINS, ALBERTA

Water discharge and sediment load characteristics of the Hilda rock-glacier stream are described for portions of the 1985 and 1986 ablation seasons. Covering an area of 1.5 km2, the Hilda rock glacier yields a relatively consistent flow, generally low in suspended sediments and relatively high in total dissolved solids during the ablation season. The seasonal hydrograph shows decreasing discharge and suspended sediment load and increasing dissolved loads through the ablation season as snowmelt water sources are depleted. Superimposed on this is a diurnal hydrograph showing that daily peaks in discharge lag several hours behind daily temperature maxima. Rain events produce hydrograph anomalies and act to flush sediment, elevating suspended loads, while diluting dissolved loads. These data suggest that rock-glacier hydrological systems are more responsive to short-term and transient meteorological conditions than previously suggested in the literature. Nonetheless, the data indicate that the Hilda rock glac...

Comparative aspects of mountain land resources management and sustainability: Case studies from India and Canada

India and Canada share a common heritage in natural resources management. Both have a colonial background, settlers and indigenous peoples; there is a history of management agencies with utilitarian attitudes, and a history of treating public lands as commodities for commerce rather than as resources for local livelihoods. This historical context guided the overall goal of this study, which was policy development for the sustainable use of mountain environments. Interviews, workshops and seminars were held with local people and resource management professionals in a comparative case study in two regions; the Kullu area in Himachal Pradesh, India and the Arrow Lakes area in British Columbia, Canada. The paper is organized around two main objectives of the work relating to the successes and failures of mountain environment resource management policies and the development of criteria for assessing and monitoring sustainability in mountain environments, in particular, criteria for examining relevant crosscultural dimensions of sustainable development in these environments. By way of conclusion the paper considers further ways in which traditional resource policy development and implementation is being challenged by changing values and priorities; ecosystems management with people; and co-management and public participation.

VASCULAR PLANTS OF MOUNTAIN TALUS SLOPES, MT. RAE AREA, ALBERTA, CANADA

The vascular flora of talus slopes in the Mt. Rae area, Canadian Rocky Mountain Front Ranges, is discussed in the context of edaphic and geomorphic conditions. Thirteen talus slopes were sampled systematically for the presence of vegetation, and vascular plants were identified to the species level. Such talus slopes are generally considered relatively sterile and too unstable for the development of distinctive flora. The presence of vegetation is usually taken as an indicator of slope stability. A total of 77 species with boreal and arctic affinities was identified. Most plants display growth forms suitable to the unstable and xeric talus substrate with Schroeters Schuttstrecker and Schuttdecker forms being most common. Although areal coverage by plants is sparse, a large number of species with morphological characteristics suitable for the talus environment suggests that the presence of plants should not be regarded as an absolute indicator of slope stability. Rather, these plants may represent a long-t...

Calculation of the separation grid design length in a new water–sediment separation structure for debris flow defense

A new water–sediment separation structure with a herringbone separation grid has been developed for debris flow defense. Previous model experiments showed that, compared to existing structures, this structure can continuously maintain its water–sediment separation function. However, in the structure design, the length of the separation grid is key to its success in separating water and sediment. This paper presents a theoretical formula for calculating the design length of the grid. The theoretical formula shows that the grid length relates to the debris flow velocity vx, the grid width B, and the grid incline angle θ. A series of model experiments were conducted in the laboratory to test the accuracy of the formula. The results show that the experimental value and the theoretical value for grid length form a linear relationship and the design length of the grid may be corrected by a coefficient. Further analysis indicates that the correction coefficient changes with the bulk density of debris flow. Finally, a formula for determining the grid design length is derived from the theoretical formula, corrected using a coefficient related to the bulk density of a debris flow.