James S. Jackson

Racial Differences in Physical and Mental Health

This article examines the extent to which racial differences in socio-economic status (SES), social class and acute and chronic indicators of perceived discrimination, as well as general measures of stress can account for black-white differences in self-reported measures of physical and mental health. The observed racial differences in health were markedly reduced when adjusted for education and especially income. However, both perceived discrimination and more traditional measures of stress are related to health and play an incremental role in accounting for differences between the races in health status. These findings underscore the need for research efforts to identify the complex ways in which economic and non-economic forms of discrimination relate to each other and combine with socio-economic position and other risk factors and resources to affect health.

Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings From Community Studies

The authors review the available empirical evidence from population-based studies of the association between perceptions of racial/ethnic discrimination and health. This research indicates that discrimination is associated with multiple indicators of poorer physical and, especially, mental health status. However, the extant research does not adequately address whether and how exposure to discrimination leads to increased risk of disease. Gaps in the literature include limitations linked to measurement of discrimination, research designs, and inattention to the way in which the association between discrimination and health unfolds over the life course. Research on stress points to important directions for the future assessment of discrimination and the testing of the underlying processes and mechanisms by which discrimination can lead to changes in health.

Disparity in Depression Treatment Among Racial and Ethnic Minority Populations in the United States

OBJECTIVE Prior research on racial and ethnic disparities in depression treatment has been limited by the scarcity of national samples that include an array of diagnostic and quality indicators and substantial numbers of non-English-speaking individuals from minority groups. Using nationally representative data for 8,762 persons, the authors evaluated differences in access to and quality of depression treatments between patients in racial-ethnic minority groups and non-Latino white patients. METHODS Access to mental health care was assessed by past-year receipt of any mental health treatment. Adequate treatment for acute depression was defined as four or more specialty or general health provider visits in the past year plus antidepressant use for 30 days or more or eight or more specialty mental health provider visits lasting at least 30 minutes, with no antidepressant use. RESULTS For persons with past-year depressive disorder, 63.7% of Latinos, 68.7% of Asians, and 58.8% of African Americans, compared with 40.2% of non-Latino whites, did not access any past-year mental health treatment (significantly different at p<.001). Disparities in the likelihood of both having access to and receiving adequate care for depression were significantly different for Asians and African Americans in contrast to non-Latino whites. CONCLUSIONS Simply relying on present health care systems without consideration of the unique barriers to quality care that ethnic and racial minority populations face is unlikely to affect the pattern of disparities observed. Populations reluctant to visit a clinic for depression care may have correctly anticipated the limited quality of usual care.

Neighborhood disadvantage, stress, and drug use among adults

This paper explores the relationships among neighborhood disadvantage, stress, and the likelihood of drug use in a sample of adults (N = 1,101). Using the 1995 Detroit Area Study in conjunction with tract-level data from the 1990 census, we find a positive relationship between neighborhood disadvantage and drug use, and this relationship remains statistically significant net of controls for individual-level socioeconomic status. Neighborhood disadvantage is moderately associated with drug related behaviors, indirectly through increased social stressors and higher levels of psychological distress among residents of disadvantaged neighborhoods. A residual effect of neighborhood disadvantage remains, net of a large number of socially relevant controls. Finally, results from interactive models suggest that the relationship between neighborhood disadvantage and drug use is most pronounced among individuals with lower incomes.

“Being black and feeling blue”: the mental health consequences of racial discrimination

Abstract The association between racial discrimination and mental health was examined using Wave 2 (1987–1988) and Wave 3 (1988–1989) panel data from the National Survey of Black Americans (NSBA). Mental health status was assessed by psychological distress and depression. In cross-sectional analyses, the perception of racial discrimination was related to high levels of psychological distress at Waves 2 and 3. Experiencing racial discrimination was marginally related to a high likelihood of depression at Wave 2. In longitudinal analyses, reports of racial discrimination at Wave 2 were associated with high levels of psychological distress at Wave 3. High psychological distress or depression at Wave 2 was not associated with reports of racial discrimination at Wave 3—indicating that poor mental health did not predict subjective reports (perceptions) of discrimination. The Discussion focused on possible directions for a more comprehensive program of research on mental health, stress, and experiences of racially based discrimination.

Socioeconomic Status and Health: The Role of Sleep

Objective Examine the role of sleep in the relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and health. Method Self-reported measures of income and education, sleep quantity and quality, and mental and physical health were obtained in a community sample of 1139 adults. Results More education was associated with higher income (p < .001), and higher income was associated with better physical health (p < .001) and psychological outcomes (p < .001). The effects of income on both mental and physical health were mediated by sleep quality (p values < .01), and sleep quantity was related to both measures of health (p values < .01) but to neither index of SES. Conclusion Sleep quality may play a mediating role in translating SES into mental and physical well-being, and income seems to mediate the effect of education on sleep and, in turn, health.

The use of informal and formal help: Four patterns of illness behavior in the black community

Most studies of professional help use among black Americans fail to describe this groups relationship to blacks experiencing distress but not requesting professional help, and generally ignore the salience of informal social support processes. A more comprehensive understanding of black help-seeking behavior would come from an approach which describes both the users and nonusers of formal helping services, and examines the benefits derived from the interpersonal relationships that comprise black friend- and kin-based networks. These analyses focused on four patterns of informal and formal help use in the National Survey of Black Americans. The findings indicated that most people use informal help only, or they use informal and professional help together. In addition, gender, age, income, and problem-type were significantly related to the different patterns of illness behavior. The implications of these findings for help seeking in the black community were discussed.

The prevalence of perceived discrimination among African American and Caribbean Black youth

The present study examined ethnic, gender, and age differences in perceived discrimination and the association between perceived discrimination and psychological well-being in a nationally representative sample of Black adolescents. Data are from the National Survey of African Life (NSAL), which includes 810 African American and 360 Caribbean Black youth. Results indicate that the majority of Black youth perceived at least 1 discriminatory incident in the previous year. Adolescents at later stages of development perceived more discrimination than those at earlier stages, and African American and Caribbean Black males perceived more discrimination than their female counterparts. Perceptions of discrimination were positively linked to depressive symptoms and were negatively linked to self-esteem and life satisfaction, regardless of ethnicity. However, Caribbean Black youth appear to be more vulnerable when they perceive high levels of discrimination.

Family life in Black America

Foreword - Andrew Billingsley Introduction - Robert Joseph Taylor, Linda M Chatters and James S Jackson Recent Demographic Trends in African American Family Structure - Robert Joseph Taylor et al The Effects of Mate Availability on Marriage among Black Americans - K Jill Kiecolt and Mark A Fossett A Contextual Analysis Gender, Age and Marital Status as Related to Romantic Involvement among African American Singles - M Belinda Tucker and Robert Joseph Taylor Life Stress and Psychological Well-Being among Married and Unmarried Blacks - Verna M Keith Religious Involvement and the Subjective Quality of Family Life among African Americans - Christopher G Ellison Multiple Familial-Worker Role Strain and Psychological Well-Being - Ruby L Beale Moderating Effects of Coping Resources among Black Americans Parents Informal Ties and Employment among Black Americans - Robert Joseph Taylor and Sherrill L Sellers Families, Unemployment and Well-Being - Clifford L Broman Differences among Africian American Single Mothers - Rukmalie Jayakody and Linda M Chatters Maritial Status, Living Arrangements and Family Support Childrearing, Social Support and Perceptions of Parental Competence Among African American Mothers - Cleopatra Howard Caldwell and Lilah Koski Strategies of Racial Socialization Among Black Parents - Michael C Thornton Mainstream, Minority & Cultural Messages Instrumental and Expressive Family Roles Among African American Fathers - Phillip J Bowman and Tyrone A Forman Family Roles and Family Satisfaction Among Black Men - Robert Joseph Taylor and Waldo E Johnson, Jr Living Arrangements of African-American Adults - Andrea G Hunter Variations by Age, Gender and Family Status Husbands, Wives, Family and Friends - H W Neighbors Sources of Stress, Sources of Support Changes Over Time in Support Network Involvement among Black Americans - Robert Joseph Taylor, James S Jackson and Linda M Chatters

Life in Black America

Introduction - James S Jackson Methodological Approach - James S Jackson Neighborhood Life - Norweeta G Milburn and Phillip J Bowman Family Life - Shirley Hatchett and Donna Cochran Women and Men - Shirley Hatchett Religious Life - Robert J Taylor and Linda M Chatters Work Life - Phillip J Bowman Joblessness - Phillip J Bowman Retirement - Rose C Gibson Physical Health - Linda M Chatters Mental Health - Harold W Neigbors Race Identity - Wyane R McCullough, Gerald Gurin and James S Jackson Political Action - Ronald E Brown Conclusion - James S Jackson