Jamy Li

The benefit of being physically present

The effects of physical embodiment and physical presence were explored through a survey of 33 experimental works comparing how people interacted with physical robots and virtual agents. A qualitative assessment of the direction of quantitative effects demonstrated that robots were more persuasive and perceived more positively when physically present in a user?s environment than when digitally-displayed on a screen either as a video feed of the same robot or as a virtual character analog; robots also led to better user performance when they were collocated as opposed to shown via video on a screen. However, participants did not respond differently to physical robots and virtual agents when both were displayed digitally on a screen - suggesting that physical presence, rather than physical embodiment, characterizes people?s responses to social robots. Implications for understanding psychological response to physical and virtual agents and for methodological design are discussed. Survey identified 33 works exploring user responses to physical robots and virtual agents.Robot agents had greater influence when physically present than telepresent.No differences were found between physical robots displayed on a screen and virtual agents that looked similar.Physical presence, but not physical embodiment alone, resulted in more favorable responses from participants.

How to train your DragonBot: Socially assistive robots for teaching children about nutrition through play

This paper describes an extended (6-session) interaction between an ethnically and geographically diverse group of 26 first-grade children and the DragonBot robot in the context of learning about healthy food choices. We find that children demonstrate a high level of enjoyment when interacting with the robot, and a statistically significant increase in engagement with the system over the duration of the interaction. We also find evidence of relationship-building between the child and robot, and encouraging trends towards child learning. These results are promising for the use of socially assistive robotic technologies for long-term one-on-one educational interventions for younger children.

Ghost driver: A field study investigating the interaction between pedestrians and driverless vehicles

How will pedestrians and bicyclists interact with autonomous vehicles when there is no human driver? In this paper, we outline a novel method for performing observational field experiments to investigate interactions with driverless cars. We provide a proof-of-concept study (N=67), conducted at a crosswalk and a traffic circle, which applies this method. In the study, participants encountered a vehicle that appeared to have no driver, but which in fact was driven by a human confederate hidden inside. We constructed a car seat costume to conceal the driver, who was specially trained to emulate an autonomous system. Data included video recordings and participant responses to post-interaction questionnaires. Pedestrians who encountered the car reported that they saw no driver, yet they managed interactions smoothly, except when the car misbehaved by moving into the crosswalk just as they were about to cross. This method is the first of its kind, and we believe that it contributes a valuable technique for safely acquiring empirical data and insights about driverless vehicle interactions. These insights can then be used to design vehicle behaviors well in advance of the broad deployment of autonomous technology.

From Trolley to Autonomous Vehicle: Perceptions of Responsibility and Moral Norms in Traffic Accidents with Self-Driving Cars

Autonomous vehicles represent a new class of transportation that may be qualitatively different from existing cars. Two online experiments assessed lay perceptions of moral norms and responsibility for traffic accidents involving autonomous vehicles. In Experiment 1, 120 US adults read a narrative describing a traffic incident between a pedestrian and a motorist. In different experimental conditions, the pedestrian, the motorist, or both parties were at fault. Participants assigned less responsibility to a self-driving car that was at fault than to a human driver who was at fault. Participants confronted with a self-driving car at fault allocated greater responsibility to the manufacturer and the government than participants who were confronted with a human driver at fault did. In Experiment 2, 120 US adults read a narrative describing a moral dilemma in which a human driver or a self-driving car must decide between either allowing five pedestrians to die or taking action to hit a single pedestrian in order to save the five. The “utilitarian” decision to hit the single pedestrian was considered the moral norm for both a self-driving and a human-driven car. Moreover, participants assigned the obligation of setting moral norms for selfdriving cars to ethics researchers and to car manufacturers. This research reveals patterns of public perception of autonomous cars and may aid lawmakers and car manufacturers in designing such cars.

Ghost driver: a platform for investigating interactions between pedestrians and driverless vehicles

How will pedestrians and cyclists interact with self-driving cars when there is no human driver? To find answers to this question we need a secure experimental design in which pedestrians can interact with a car that appears to drive on its own. In Ghost Driver we staged a fake autonomous car by installing LIDARs, cameras and decals on the outside of the vehicle and by covering the driver with a seat costume so that it appeared that there was no driver in the car. In initial field studies we found that this Wizard-of-Oz technique convinced more than 80% of the participants that the car was driving autonomously without a driver. Consequently the Ghost Driver methodology could become a platform for further investigation of how pedestrians or cyclists interact with driverless vehicles.

The nature of the bots: how people respond to robots, virtual agents and humans as multimodal stimuli

This research agenda aims to understand how people treat robots along two dialectics. In the mechanical-living dialectic, fabricated entities are assessed against their organic counterparts to see if people respond differently to robots versus other people. Multiple experiments are conducted that compare human-robot relationships to human-human relationships by manipulating roles in videos of dyadic conversations shown to participants. In the physical-digital dialectic, a physically embodied robotic agent is compared to either a digitally-presented virtual agent (such as an animated character on a computer screen) or a digitally-presented robotic agent (such as a live video feed of the robot). The role of physical and digital embodiment and display medium are explored through a comprehensive survey and analysis of existing experimental works comparing physical and digital agents. Key research questions, related work, scope, research approach, current findings and remaining work are outlined.

Observer Perception of Dominance and Mirroring Behavior in Human-Robot Relationships

How people view relationships between humans and robots is an important consideration for the design and acceptance of social robots. Two studies investigated the effect of relational behavior in a human-robot dyad. In Study 1, participants watched videos of a human confederate discussing the Desert Survival Task with either another human confederate or a humanoid robot. Participants were less trusting of both the robot and the person in a human-robot relationship where the robot was dominant toward the person than when the person was dominant toward the robot; these differences were not found for a human pair. In Study 2, participants watched videos of a human confederate having an everyday conversation with either another human confederate or a humanoid robot. Participants who saw a confederate mirror the gestures of a robot found the robot less attractive than when the robot mirrored the confederate; the opposite effect was found for a human pair. Exploratory findings suggest that human-robot relationships are viewed differently than human dyads. Categories and Subject Descriptors H.1.2 [Models and Principles]: User/Machine Systems - human factors, software psychology General Terms Design, Human Factors

Social Robots as Interactive Technology Agents: Supporting Design with Exploratory Assessment

How people respond to social robots as new interactive media is an important consideration for their design and implementation. A series of experimental studies uses exploratory assessment to evaluate three applications of social robots: pedagogical social robots that help deliver online content; conversational social robots that speak with people; and robotic furniture that move around the room. My overall goal is to explore how a robots social status influences participant response and the limits of that response. This research provides concrete suggestions for robot design and technology assessment.

Social Robots for Automated Remote Instruction

Instructional video content is being created in many different languages. A robot is a generic interface that can deliver translated lecture content in a persons space. In an exploratory study, 40 participants viewed a lecture delivered by a robot lecturer that was either located in front of them or displayed on a screen, in either a real-world environment or while wearing an immersive virtual reality headset. Initial results did not find differences in test performance or in how much participants liked a robot lecturer that was in front of them compared to on a screen, perhaps because the robot spoke the lecture but did not interact with the person.

Embodied Design Improvisation for Autonomous Vehicles

We have developed a generative, improvisational and experimental approach to the design of expressive everyday objects, such as mechanical ottomans, emotive dresser drawers and roving trash barrels. We have found that the embodied design improvisation methodology—which includes storyboarding, improvisation, video prototyping, Wizard-of-Oz lab studies and field experiments—has also been effective in designing the behaviors and interfaces of another kind of robot: the autonomous vehicle. This chapter describes our application of this design approach in developing and deploying three studies of autonomous vehicle interfaces and behaviors. The first, WoZ, focuses on the conceptual phase of the design process, using a talk-aloud protocol, improvisation with experts, and rapid prototyping to develop an interface that drivers can trust and hold in esteem. The second, the Real Road Autonomous Driving Simulator, explores people’s naturalistic reactions to prototypes, through an autonomous driving interface that communicates impending action through haptic precues. The third, Ghost Driver, follows the public deployment of a prototype built upon frugal materials and stagecraft, in a field study of how pedestrians negotiate intersections with autonomous vehicles where no driver is visible. Each study suggests design principles to guide further development.