Jan Blacher

Transition to Adulthood: Mental Retardation, Families, and Culture

A conceptual model was proposed guiding a study of mental retardation and family well-being during the transition from late adolescence into young adulthood. The developmental period from about age 18 to 26 is critical, in that formal schooling ends and changes in residential, vocational, and social status are likely. Furthermore, the proposal was made that the success of transitional experiences in these three realms will influence family well-being, an outcome of primary interest at this stage of the lifecycle of the family. Individual characteristics, environment and culture, and family involvement with programs are hypothesized to influence family well-being, but primarily through their impact on transition success.

Contributions to Depression in Latina Mothers with and without Children with Retardation: Implications for Caregiving

Contributions to depression in 148 Latina mothers with and 101 without children with mental retardation were investigated. Depressive symptomatology was assessed using the Center for Epidemiologie Studies-Depression scale (CES-D) (Radloff, 1977). Depression was elevated in both Latina samples relative to a normative group. Furthermore, Latina mothers who had children with mental retardation showed significantly higher levels of depressive symptomatology relative to controls. Depression was predicted by low family cohesion, poor health of the mother, absence of spouse or partner, less use of passive appraisal as a coping strategy, and presence of a child with mental retardation.

Prediction of social skills in 6-year-old children with and without developmental delays: contributions of early regulation and maternal scaffolding.

Childrens emotion dysregulation and maternal scaffolding at age 4 were examined as predictors of social skills at age 6, for 66 children with and 106 without early developmental delays. Observed scaffolding and regulation during frustrating laboratory tasks related to later mother, father, and teacher social-skill ratings for children with delays and were stronger predictors of social skills within this group than were developmental level and early behavior problems. In contrast, fewer associations were found for typically developing children, with early behavior problems providing the only unique prediction to social skills. Data support a model in which dysregulation partially mediates the association between developmental status and social-skill outcomes. Implications for research, prevention, and early intervention are discussed.

Cultural Models of Transition: Latina Mothers of Young Adults with Developmental Disabilities:

This study used several focus groups to examine culturally based variation in attitudes, beliefs, and meanings of transition. Sixteen Latina mothers of young adults with disabilities participated in the study, recruited from an agency serving low-income, predominantly Spanish-speaking communities. Data analysis identified five primary themes: (a) basic life skills and social adaptation, (b) the importance of the family and home rather than individualism and independence, (c) the importance of the mothers role and expertise in decision making, (d) access to information; and (e) dangers of the outside world. The overarching theme was a view of transition as home-centered, sheltered adaptation as opposed to a model emphasizing independent productivity. The findings and the implications for future research and practice are discussed.

Mental Disorders in Five-Year-Old Children With or Without Developmental Delay: Focus on ADHD

Epidemiological studies of children and adolescents with intellectual disability have found 30 to 50% exhibiting clinically significant behavior problems. Few studies, however, have assessed young children, included a cognitively typical comparison group, assessed for specific disorders, and/or studied family correlates of diagnosis. We assessed 236 5-year-old children—95 with developmental delay (DD) and 141 with typical development—for clinical diagnoses using a structured interview. Every disorder assessed was more prevalent in the DD group. The percent of children meeting criteria for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) most highly differentiated the two groups (ratio = 3.21:1). There was high stability from externalizing behavior problems at age 3 to ADHD diagnoses at age 5 in both groups. In regression analyses, parenting stress at child age 3 related to later ADHD diagnosis in both groups and maternal scaffolding (sensitive teaching) also predicted ADHD in the DD group.

Families and intellectual disability.

Purpose of review This review includes recent research pertaining to family functioning when there is a child or adult offspring with intellectual disability. The purpose was to broaden the examination of families research from an adjustment/coping perspective to consideration of more contextual factors (environment, culture, service delivery). Recent findings Studies continue to focus on parental well being, with parents of children with intellectual disability still showing evidence of stress and depression. Increasing evidence is accruing, however, that child behavior problems or specific syndrome more directly relate to poorer parental well being. On the other hand, parenting behaviors also contribute to child behaviors, with studies highlighting the importance of parenting context and dynamics. Interventions focus on child behaviors as well as on stress reduction for parents. Finally, the continued involvement of parents across the lifespan of their young adult with intellectual disability is apparent from studies of quality of life and living arrangements. Summary The well being of family members continues to be an area of interest, with special emphasis on siblings and cultural context. Methodological rigor in families research also continues to increase, with diverse methodologies represented. There is still a need, however, for the development of theoretical models within which to frame future research on topics such as siblings, as well as both negative and positive impact on families.

Quality of Life for young adults with mental retardation during transition

The quality of life of 188 young adults with moderate or severe mental retardation was examined. Schalock and Keiths (1993) Quality of Life Questionnaire (QOL-Q) was used as the primary outcome measure. Young adults who had exited high school had significantly higher overall quality of life scores than did those who were still attending school. Individuals who had jobs in the community also had significantly higher levels of quality of life. Although young adult adaptive functioning was the single largest indicator of the QOL-Q index total score and three of the four subscales, it was not related to scores on the Satisfaction subscale. Here, family- and environment-related variables played a greater role. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Sibling Relationships and Parent Stress in Families of Children with and without Learning Disabilities.

The present study investigated whether (a) siblings of children with (LD) and without learning disabilities (NLD) differed in terms of psychological adjustment and perceived impact of their target brother or sister, and (b) whether parents of LD and NLD children differed in terms of perceived stress and burden. Based on Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) scores of target child behavior, families were divided into four groups: (a) No LD and no behavior problems (BP), (b) LD only, (c) BP only, and (d) LD and BP. Siblings (n=71) and their parents (n=67) were interviewed in their homes. Regardless of whether the target child was LD or NLD, parent reports of the internalizing and externalizing behavior scores from the CBCL differentially reflected the presence of behavior problems. The results indicated that (a) LD and NLD siblings differed in their perception of the quality of their sibling relationships and self-reports of their own behavior, and (b) the parents of children reported to have a behavior problem with or without LD reported higher levels of perceived burden. A substantial indicator of the impact of a child with LD on siblings and parents was related to whether children with LD also had behavior problems.

Alienated advocacy: Perspectives of Latina mothers of young adults with developmental disabilities on service systems

Although collaborative partnership between parents and professionals is a cornerstone of the special education and service systems, this relationship exists more as an ideal, especially when low-income, culturally diverse families are involved. Through three focus groups, we examined the beliefs of 16 low-income Latina mothers of young adults with developmental disabilities about their relationships with the educational and service delivery systems. Primary concerns identified were (a) poor communication, (b) low effort in providing services, (c) negative attitudes of professionals toward the client-children, (d) negative treatment of parents by professionals, and (e) the mothers role as central to the well-being of her child. Mothers tended to adopt a posture of alienated advocacy in relation to their childs educational and service needs.

Economic Pressure, Maternal Depression, and Child Adjustment in Latino Families: An Exploratory Study

The goal of this study was to investigate the impact of poverty and economic pressure upon the adjustment of mothers and children in immigrant Latino families. Participants included 56 first generation Latina mothers who completed questionnaires addressing economic difficulties, depression, social support, and behavior problems exhibited by their children (30 boys, 26 girls) who ranged in ages from 4 to 13. Results indicate that maternal depression mediates the relationship between maternal economic pressure and child adjustment. Social support was found to further moderate the relationship between maternal depression and child internalizing problems. Gender differences indicated that relations were stronger among mothers of boys than mothers of girls.