Jan D. Vermunt

Congruence and friction between learning and teaching

Theories of learning and theories of teaching often originate and operate independently from one another. This article attempts to contribute to the integration of the two types of theories. First, the cognitive, affective and regulative activities students use to learn are analyzed. Next, different ways in which teachers can regulate the learning and thinking activities of students are discussed, as well as the teaching strategies they can use for that aim. The third part focuses on different ways in which student-regulation and teacher-regulation of learning act upon one another. Congruence and friction between these modes of control are discussed. From this interplay implications are derived for process-oriented teaching, aimed at promoting congruence and constructive friction, avoiding destructive friction and reducing the gap between learning and teaching.

Metacognitive, cognitive and affective aspects of learning styles and strategies: a phenomenographic analysis

This paper addresses the following questions: how do students perform metacognitive, cognitive and affective learning functions; how is the execution of learning functions regulated by internal and external sources; what learning styles can be discerned from the viewpoint of learning functions and regulation? Subjects were students from an open distance university and a regular university. They were interviewed extensively about their learning strategies, mental models of learning, learning orientations and interpretations and appraisals of instructional measures. The interviews were analyzed in a phenomenographic way. The results indicate that there are large differences among students in the manner in which they carry out learning functions, that these differences are associated with internal and external sources, and that four qualitatively different learning styles can be discerned: an undirected, a reproduction directed, a meaning directed and an application directed learning style. Mental models of learning and learning orientations turn out to be related to the way in which students interpret, appraise and use instructional measures to regulate their learning activities. It is concluded that in many instances instructional measures do not have the intended effects. Suggestions are given regarding the implications of these results for the improvement of teaching practices in higher education.

Conditions for successful reflective use of portfolios in undergraduate medical education

Aim  Portfolios are often used as an instrument with which to stimulate students to reflect on their experiences. Research has shown that working with portfolios does not automatically stimulate reflection. In this study we addressed the question: What are the conditions for successful reflective use of portfolios in undergraduate medical education?

The use of qualitative research criteria for portfolio assessment as an alternative to reliability evaluation: a case study

Aim  Because it deals with qualitative information, portfolio assessment inevitably involves some degree of subjectivity. The use of stricter assessment criteria or more structured and prescribed content would improve interrater reliability, but would obliterate the essence of portfolio assessment in terms of flexibility, personal orientation and authenticity. We resolved this dilemma by using qualitative research criteria as opposed to reliability in the evaluation of portfolio assessment.

Consistency and variability of learning strategies in different university courses

The present study addressed the question of consistency and variability in learning strategies. Four university courses provided different learning contexts. The same group of students reported about their learning strategies by completing identical questionnaires on each of these courses. Participants were 85 students attending the first year of Law studies. A second study consisted of 63 students attending similar courses in the following academic year. An analysis of variance showed that students varied their reported learning strategies as a function of different learning contexts. This indicated a context-specific component in strategy use. Intercorrelations, however, showed that students displayed consistency in reported learning strategies across course contexts as well. This indicated a personal, habitual component in strategy use. It thus seems that the question of variability and consistency in learning strategies does not yield an ‘either-or’, answer. Context variables were explored to explain the variations. Use of stated cases, provision of a clear organisation of subject matter and of diverse didactic resources appeared to diminish encountered problems and lack of regulation (which proved to be related variables), and promote the use of concrete processing, relating, analyzing, self-regulation and externally regulated strategies. Evidence was found that learning strategies differed among each other in the degree of variability. Memorizing turned out to be relatively resistant to differences in course context, whereas concrete processing strategies and lack of regulation showed relatively large susceptibility to course context. Explanations were proposed in terms of different stages in the development of learning strategies and in terms of context-variables.

Explicating Practical Knowledge: An Extension of Mentor Teachers' Roles.

SUMMARY This article provides an overview of various models and interpretations of mentoring and focuses on a somewhat neglected aspect of mentoring: the explication of mentor teachers’ practical knowledge as a contribution to student teachers’ learning to teach. From that perspective, research on mentoring is related to research on teachers’ knowledge. The central questions addressed in this article are: (a) What role can the explication of practical knowledge by mentor teachers play in helping student teachers learn to teach?, and (b) How can practical knowledge be made explicit during mentoring? Although the difficulties involved in eliciting mentor teachers’ practical knowledge are recognised, several opportunities for realising this goal are described. Finally, some preconditions for the exploration of mentor teachers’ practical knowledge by student teachers and suggestions for further research are discussed.

Knowledge Construction in Learning to Teach: The role of dynamic sources

Most theories on learning to teach focus on active, reflective learning. In this article it is argued that three sources of regulation have to play a role in knowledge construction in learning to teach: external sources to provide new information, active internal sources to deliberately focus on (new) information, and dynamic internal sources to spontaneously reconceptualize prior understandings. It is suggested that the ability or readiness of student-teachers to effectively involve all three of these sources in their learning may depend largely on how emotionally risky it is for them to change their perception of reality. Disappointing outcomes of teacher education are considered from the proposed theory. Implications for teacher education are discussed.

The developmental trajectory of perceived self-regulation, personal interest, and general achievement throughout high school: a longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND Our interest in perceived self-regulation of learning arose in the context of educational reform. After decades of stability, the Finnish high school system underwent reform in the 1990s, with a significant emphasis being placed on promoting student self-regulation of learning. AIMS The purposes of the study were (1) to evaluate changes in the mean level of perceived self-regulation throughout high school and (2) to evaluate the nature of the developmental relations between achievement, perceived self-regulation, and personal interest. SAMPLE The participants consisted of 245 systematically sampled high school students from a mid-sized Finnish city. METHODS T tests for paired samples were employed to assess changes in the level of personal interest and perceived self-regulation. Analysis of the developmental relations was carried out within a structural equations modelling framework. RESULTS The main result was that perceived self-regulation at the beginning of high school predicted not only scholastic achievement at the end of high school over and above prior achievement, but also subsequent personal interest. Additionally, following an international trend, the level of perceived self-regulation decreased from the first to third year of study. CONCLUSIONS The study has important theoretical and practical implications. First, the results suggest that perceived self-regulation and personal interest are only partially explained by achievement. Second, it appears that perceived self-regulation drives personal interest, not the other way around. Finally, ways for teachers and schools to sustain perceived self-regulation throughout the high school years are discussed.

Selection of Main Points in Instructional Texts: Influences of Task Demands.

This study examined the degree to which 3 types of tasks affect the selection of main points in instructional texts. 133 10th graders participated. Each participant studied 3 instructional texts, and each text was preceded by 1 task. In the linguistic task, students had to underline text elements considered important by the author of the text. In the educational task, students had to underline text elements considered important by a portrayed teacher. And in the interest task, text fragments considered interesting by the student were to be underlined. On average, the type of task did affect the number and kind of selected text fragments, but the variation between the students was large. In the educational task, students selected the text fragments that corresponded to the task, but many of the authors main points were also selected. In the interest task, all kinds of text fragments were selected instead of only the fragments used to arouse interest. In all, the study provides more insight into 3 ways of identifying main points. These insights should be integrated into instructional programs on selecting main points.

Conceptions of Research and Methodology Learning: A commentary on the special issue

This special issue on conceptions of research and methodology learning consists of five interesting studies. The studies have all been conducted carefully and are reported clearly. A very remarkable fact, noticed by several authors in this special issue, is the lack of any empirical research on students’ conceptions of research and their learning of scientific research skills in the research literature. The one study that has been done, which several of the authors refer to, is that of Brew (2001). This lack of existing research underlines the relevance and originality of the studies reported in this special issue.