Jan Pryor

Cohort Profile: Growing Up in New Zealand

Centre for Longitudinal Research – He Ara ki Mua, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand, Growing Up in New Zealand, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand, School of Medicine, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand, Starship Children’s Hospital, Auckland District Health Board, Auckland, New Zealand, School of Population Health, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand, Department of Public Health, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Otago, Wellington, New Zealand, Office of the Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Māori), Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand, Bioinformatics Institute, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand, Ministry of Pacific Island Affairs, Auckland Office, Auckland, New Zealand, Department of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand, Roy McKenzie Centre for the Study of Families, Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand, Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand and School of Medical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

Breastfeeding and intelligence of preschool children

AIM To investigate whether breastfeeding during infancy is a determinant of intelligence at 3.5 y. METHODS Five hundred and fifty European children enrolled at birth in the Auckland Birthweight Collaborative Study were assessed at 3.5 y of age. Approximately half were small for gestational age (SGA < or =10th percentile) at birth and half were appropriate for gestational age (AGA >10th percentile). Duration of breastfeeding was recorded at maternal interview, and the intelligence of children was assessed using the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale. Regression analysis was used to calculate estimates of difference in intelligence scores between breastfeeding groups for the total sample and the group of SGA children. Analyses of the total sample were weighted to account for the disproportionate sampling of SGA children. RESULTS Breastfeeding was not significantly related to intelligence scores in the total sample despite a trend for longer periods of breastfeeding to be associated with higher intelligence scores. However, in the SGA group, breastfeeding was significantly related to IQ at 3.5 y. Small for gestational age children who were breastfed for longer than 12 mo had adjusted scores 6.0 points higher than those who were not breastfed (p=0.06). CONCLUSION Breastfeeding may be particularly important for the cognitive development of preschool children born small for gestational age.

Family routines and rituals in the context of chronic conditions: A review

This paper is a systematic review of 39 empirical studies on family routines and rituals in the context of a chronic condition of a family member. The search strategy encompassed a wide spectrum of chronic conditions affecting family members from childhood/adolescence to adulthood. Twenty quantitative, 13 qualitative, 3 mixed-methods, and 3 intervention studies published between 1995 and 2012 were reviewed. A conceptual framework of routines and rituals as key elements of family health was adopted, resulting in three main findings. First, a chronic condition in a family member impacted the frequency and nature of familys routines and rituals. Second, these whole-family interactions held important functions for individuals and families, constituting strategic resources in the conditions management and opportunities for emotional support exchanges, and providing the family with a sense of normalcy amid the challenges posed by chronic conditions. Third, family routines and rituals were linked to positive health and adaptation outcomes for both patients and family members. Implications for future research include the need for the distinction between routines and rituals against a conceptual background, use of validated assessment methods, and empirical examination of predictors of changes in routines and rituals throughout the course of the condition and of the mechanisms linking these family events to positive outcomes. Conclusions support the inclusion of routines and rituals in a family-centered care approach to the understanding and treatment of chronic conditions.

Depression symptoms during pregnancy: Evidence from Growing Up in New Zealand

BACKGROUND Depression during pregnancy has significant implications for pregnancy outcomes and maternal and child health. There is a need to identify which family, physical and mental health factors are associated with depression during pregnancy. METHODS An ethnically and socioeconomically diverse sample of 5664 pregnant women living in New Zealand completed a face-to-face interview during the third trimester. Antenatal depression (AD) symptoms were assessed using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). Maternal demographic, physical and mental health, and family and relationship characteristics were measured. The association between symptoms of AD and maternal characteristics was determined using multiple logistic regression. RESULTS 11.9% of the participating women had EPDS scores (13+) that indicated probable AD. When considering sociodemographic predictors of AD symptoms, we found that women from non-European ethnicities, specifically Pacific Islander, Asian and other, were more likely to suffer from AD symptoms. Greater perceived stress during pregnancy and a diagnosis of anxiety both before and during pregnancy were also associated with greater odds of having AD according to the EPDS. LIMITATIONS The women were in their third trimester of pregnancy at the interview. Therefore, we cannot discount the possibility of recall bias for questions relating to pre-pregnancy status or early-pregnancy behaviours. CONCLUSIONS AD is prevalent amongst New Zealand women. Ethnicity, perceived stress and anxiety are particularly associated with a greater likelihood of depression during pregnancy. Further attention to supporting maternal mental health status in the antenatal period is required.

Adolescents' perceptions of parental conflict: the downside of silence

Abstract Conflict between parents has been widely studied. However, the possible impact of nonverbal, nonphysical, silent conflict has not been examined. In this study, young people were interviewed about the characteristics of silent conflict, its impact, and their behaviours in response. Characteristics included high emotional content, behavioural changes in parents, and lack of resolution. Young people felt helplessness, a lack of control, insecurity, inability to monitor what was happening, confusion, and blame. In response to their parents’ silent conflict, they reported behaving badly to distract parents, taking sides, and self-harming. Overall, it was apparent that silent conflict is a real phenomenon readily recognised by young people, causing them distress. In particular, its characteristics of nonresolution, lack of identifiable content, and the consequent lack of ability to make sense of it, indicate that it is a particularly difficult aspect of interparental conflict.

Marital Conflict, Attitudes towards Parents, and Parenting Styles Experienced by Adolescents

This study investigated the relationships among marital conflict, perceptions of parents, and parenting styles perceived by adolescents. Subjects were 172 high school and university students aged 16 to 19 years. Subjects were given a questionnaire containing The Conflict Scale, Parenting Styles Scale, and Perceptions of Parents Scale. Results indicated that total marital conflict scores correlated with negative perceptions of mothers and fathers and with authoritarian, neglectful, and permissive parenting. Marital conflict correlated positively with negative perceptions of mothers and fathers and negatively with positive perceptions of parents. Mediational analyses revealed that neglectful parenting was a partial and sometimes full mediator in the relationships between perceived marital conflict and perceptions of parents. Neglect was a full mediator in the relationship between perceived marital conflict and both positive and negative perceptions of mothers. Neglect was a partial mediator in the relationship between perceived marital conflict and positive perceptions of fathers. This suggests that marital conflict may be consuming parents’ emotional resources, leading to neglectful parenting and low support, which in turn contributes to adolescents holding negative perceptions of parents. These findings might contribute to education programs for addressing the negative effects of marital conflict and its impact on the perceptions children hold of their parents. Awareness of these influences may minimise the harmful family relationship effects of marital conflict.

Silent parental conflict: parents' perspective

Abstract As well as verbal disputes and physical aggression, relationship conflict between couples may take a non-verbal non-physical form. Little research exists on this aspect of couple conflict especially in the context of families with children. This qualitative exploratory study was designed to begin addressing this gap and to provide a foundation for the development of a psychometric measure. We conducted 13 semi-structured interviews with parents in order to ascertain their perspective on non-verbal non-physical conflict. Five main themes identified through thematic analysis were: behavioural change as a marker of silent conflict, lack of resolution, avoidance and withdrawal, costs of silent conflict, and advantages of silent conflict. Participants reported emotional and physical effects and negative spill over to their interactions with children, as parents became impatient and preoccupied. Despite these high costs, parents cited emotional regulation, de-escalation and the possibility of concealment of discord from children as perceived benefits of silent conflict. The complexity of silent conflict is discussed in view of the recent findings of its impact on young people (Pryor & Pattison 2007).

Evaluation of an Information Program for Separating Parents

Abstract The Parenting Through Separation (PTS) program is available throughout New Zealand to separating parents. The PTS program aims to educate parents on the impact of separation on children, how to minimise parental conflict, and how to make postseparation care arrangements that are in children’s best interests. This paper presents an evaluation of the PTS program, including an assessment of the extent to which the program is meeting its aims. Using before and after course measures the evaluation also assessed the extent to which parents reported reduced parental conflict, more satisfactory care arrangements, and improved child adjustment. While the PTS program is doing well in achieving most of its goals, the research identified areas where it is having less of an impact.

Breastfeeding and intelligence of preschool children: Breastfeeding and intelligence in preschool children

Aim: To investigate whether breastfeeding during infancy is a determinant of intelligence at 3.5 y. Methods: Five hundred and fifty European children enrolled at birth in the Auckland Birthweight Collaborative Study were assessed at 3.5 y of age. Approximately half were small for gestational age (SGA10th percentile) at birth and half were appropriate for gestational age (AGA>10th percentile). Duration of breastfeeding was recorded at maternal interview, and the intelligence of children was assessed using the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale. Regression analysis was used to calculate estimates of difference in intelligence scores between breastfeeding groups for the total sample and the group of SGA children. Analyses of the total sample were weighted to account for the disproportionate sampling of SGA children. Results: Breastfeeding was not significantly related to intelligence scores in the total sample despite a trend for longer periods of breastfeeding to be associated with higher intelligence scores. However, in the SGA group, breastfeeding was significantly related to IQ at 3.5 y. Small for gestational age children who were breastfed for longer than 12 mo had adjusted scores 6.0 points higher than those who were not breastfed (p=0.06).