Jan R. Landwehr

It's Got the Look: The Effect of Friendly and Aggressive “Facial” Expressions on Product Liking and Sales

When designing their products, companies try to employ shapes that are both emotionally appealing and compatible with the brands image. One way to accomplish these aims is to anthropomorphize a products appearance. The current research investigates how people decode emotional “facial” expressions from product shapes and how this affects liking of the design, using three studies in the domain of cars and one in the domain of cellular phones. In accordance with theories on the perception of human faces, the first study shows that perception of friendliness is limited to the grille (mouth), while aggressiveness can be communicated with both grille and headlights (eyes). The next study examines the best-liked combination of these two emotional expressions and finds that consumers prefer the combination of an upturned (friendly) grille with slanted (aggressive) headlights. The authors further explain this finding on a process level by showing that this combination triggers a positive affective state of both high pleasure and arousal. The third study validates the results with automobile sales data, and a fourth study extends the findings to another product category.

A Dual-Process Perspective on Fluency-Based Aesthetics The Pleasure-Interest Model of Aesthetic Liking

In this article, we develop an account of how aesthetic preferences can be formed as a result of two hierarchical, fluency-based processes. Our model suggests that processing performed immediately upon encountering an aesthetic object is stimulus driven, and aesthetic preferences that accrue from this processing reflect aesthetic evaluations of pleasure or displeasure. When sufficient processing motivation is provided by a perceiver’s need for cognitive enrichment and/or the stimulus’ processing affordance, elaborate perceiver-driven processing can emerge, which gives rise to fluency-based aesthetic evaluations of interest, boredom, or confusion. Because the positive outcomes in our model are pleasure and interest, we call it the Pleasure-Interest Model of Aesthetic Liking (PIA Model). Theoretically, this model integrates a dual-process perspective and ideas from lay epistemology into processing fluency theory, and it provides a parsimonious framework to embed and unite a wealth of aesthetic phenomena, including contradictory preference patterns for easy versus difficult-to-process aesthetic stimuli.

The effect of brand design on brand gender perceptions and brand preference

Purpose – This research aims to examine the impact of brand design elements (logo shape, brand name, type font and color) on brand masculinity and femininity perceptions, consumer preferences and brand equity. Design/methodology/approach – This research empirically tests the relation between brand design elements, brand masculinity and femininity and brand preferences/equity in four studies involving fictitious and real brands. Findings – Brand design elements consistently influenced brand masculinity and femininity perceptions. These, in turn, significantly related to consumer preferences and brand equity. Brand masculinity and femininity perceptions successfully predicted brand equity above and beyond other brand personality dimensions. Research limitations/implications – Although this research used a wide range of brand design elements, the interactive effects of various design elements warrant further research. Practical implications – This research demonstrates how markers of masculinity and feminini...

Clustered Insights : Improving Eye Tracking Data Analysis using Scan Statistics

Analysis of eye-tracking data in marketing research has traditionally relied upon regions of interest (ROIs) methodology or the use of heatmaps. Clear disadvantages exist for both methods. Addressing this gap, the current research applies spatiotemporal scan statistics to the analysis and visualisation of eye tracking data. Results of a sample experiment using anthropomorphic car faces demonstrate several advantages provided by the new method. In contrast to traditional approaches, scan statistics provide a means to scan eye tracking data automatically in space and time with differing gaze clusters, with results able to be comprehensively visualised and statistically assessed.

Aesthetic Pleasure versus Aesthetic Interest: The Two Routes to Aesthetic Liking

Although existing research has established that aesthetic pleasure and aesthetic interest are two distinct positive aesthetic responses, empirical research on aesthetic preferences usually considers only aesthetic liking to capture participants’ aesthetic response. This causes some fundamental contradictions in the literature; some studies find a positive relationship between easy-to-process stimulus characteristics and aesthetic liking, while others suggest a negative relationship. The present research addresses these empirical contradictions by investigating the dual character of aesthetic liking as manifested in both the pleasure and interest components. Based on the Pleasure-Interest Model of Aesthetic Liking (PIA Model; Graf and Landwehr, 2015), two studies investigated the formation of pleasure and interest and their relationship with aesthetic liking responses. Using abstract art as the stimuli, Study 1 employed a 3 (stimulus fluency: low, medium, high) × 2 (processing style: automatic, controlled) × 2 (aesthetic response: pleasure, interest) experimental design to examine the processing dynamics responsible for experiencing aesthetic pleasure versus aesthetic interest. We find that the effect of stimulus fluency on pleasure is mediated by a gut-level fluency experience. Stimulus fluency and interest, by contrast, are related through a process of disfluency reduction, such that disfluent stimuli that grow more fluent due to processing efforts become interesting. The second study employed product designs (bikes, chairs, and lamps) as stimuli and a 2 (fluency: low, high) × 2 (processing style: automatic, controlled) × 3 (product type: bike, chair, lamp) experimental design to examine pleasure and interest as mediators of the relationship between stimulus fluency and design attractiveness. With respect to lamps and chairs, the results suggest that the effect of stimulus fluency on attractiveness is fully mediated by aesthetic pleasure, especially in the automatic processing style. Conversely, disfluent product designs can enhance design attractiveness judgments due to interest when a controlled processing style is adopted.

Verankerung von Markenwerten im Produktdesign

ZusammenfassungViele Unternehmen zielen darauf ab, ihre Produkte zu Marken zu entwickeln. Hierzu kommen Markenwerte ins Spiel, die Erzeugnissen eine Persönlichkeit verleihen. Obgleich die Diskussion um die Markenbildung bei vielen Unternehmen fortgeschritten ist, liegen bislang kaum Erkenntnisse vor, wie sich Produkte im Einklang mit Markenwerten gestalten lassen. Dieser Aufsatz zeigt einen Ansatz zur Verankerung von Markenwerten im Produktdesign. Durch Morphing (Bildmittelung) und Warping (Bildverzerrung) von Produktbildern lassen sich jene Designelemente erkennen, an denen Kunden bestimmte Markenwerte festmachen bzw. erleben. Eine empirische Untersuchung im Automobilmarkt verdeutlicht die Leistungsfähigkeit dieser Vorgehensweise. Mit diesem Ansatz eröffnet sich die Möglichkeit für eine markenorientierte Gestaltung von Produkten. Damit lassen sich Produkte durch die Modifikation einzelner Designelemente gezielt zu Botschaftern der Markenwerte entwickeln. Im Sinne einer integrierten Vermittlung der Markenwerte können insbesondere die Kommunikations- und die Produktpolitik besser miteinander verzahnt werden.

Squaring customer demands, brand strength, and production requirements : A case example of an integrated product and branding strategy

As part of a product management strategy, companies face the challenge of integrating customer needs on the one hand with company and production requirements on the other hand. While approaches exist that attempt to transform the ‘voice of the customer’ into the ‘voice of the engineer’, these invariably do not explicitly convey issues of brand management. Yet branding is of pivotal importance to the company as well as to the reception of its products and services by customers. Therefore, we propose an integrated approach to product and branding strategy by identifying important brand drivers, and identify a process of how such knowledge can be transformed into production requirements. Using a combination of brand performance approach and quality function deployment, we use a case study from the automotive industry to exemplify the applicability of this integrated approach. Specific focus is on the decisions needed during implementation with regard to use of analysis methods as part of the decision-making process of an integrated product and branding strategy.

Management von Kundenbeziehungen durch Brand Communities

Das Marketing wurde in den letzten Jahrzehnten durch die Betrachtung von dyadischen Beziehungen zwischen Anbietern und Nachfragern dominiert (Bruhn/Georgi 2006). Dabei verstand man Transaktionen zunachst als diskrete (voneinander unabhangige) Ereignisse, spater auch als relationale Phanomene (Bruhn 2002a; 2002b). Die Marketingtheorie und -praxis vernachlassigte (mit wenigen Ausnahmen) jedoch, Interaktionen zwischen Konsumenten zu analysieren. Gerade Begegnungen zwischen Individuen beeinflussen jedoch deren Wahrnehmung, Beurteilung und Akzeptanz von Produkten und Marken (Bearden/Etzel 1982). Die isolierte Betrachtung des Konsumentenverhaltens als Entscheidung Einzelner ist daher um Einflusse der naheren und weiteren Umwelt zu erganzen. Die Bedeutung dieser sozialen Aspekte des Konsums lasst sich als Komplement zu der vorherrschenden, individualistisch ausgerichteten Forschung zum Konsumentenverhalten verstehen (Cova 1997; 1999).

Die Attraktivität des Durchschnittsprodukts

Marketers tend to look for unique market positions for their products. In their few, it is best when their products deviate from other products significantly. Empirical investigations with faces in cognitive psychology show the people tend to prefer prototypical stimuli — a phenomenon referred to as beauty in average effect. A study in the automotive market demonstrates that this insight holds not just for faces but also for cars. This finding has implications for segment specific car design and for the management of variants.ZusammenfassungImmer wieder ist im Marketing die Frage nach jenen Facetten eines Produkts zu beantworten, die dessen Attraktivität in den Augen der K unden ausmachen. Zumeist zielen Produktmanager darauf ab, ihren E rzeugnissen eine einzigartige Position im Markt zu verleihen, die sie von den E rzeugnissen der Wettbewerber differenziert. Erkenntnisse aus der Wahrnehmungs- und K ognitionspsychologie suggerieren die besondere Attraktivität des mittleren Produkts bzw. von G ütern, die geringfügig von diesen Prototypen abweichen. Anhand von E xperimenten im Automobilmarkt lässt sich die R elevanz dieses psychologischen Befundes auch für Produkte konstatieren. Hieraus ergeben sich I mplikationen für die segmentspezifische Produktgestaltung und das Variantenmanagement.Immer wieder ist im Marketing die Frage nach jenen Facetten eines Produkts zu beantworten, die dessen Attraktivitat in den Augen der K unden ausmachen. Zumeist zielen Produktmanager darauf ab, ihren E rzeugnissen eine einzigartige Position im Markt zu verleihen, die sie von den E rzeugnissen der Wettbewerber differenziert. Erkenntnisse aus der Wahrnehmungs- und K ognitionspsychologie suggerieren die besondere Attraktivitat des mittleren Produkts bzw. von G utern, die geringfugig von diesen Prototypen abweichen. Anhand von E xperimenten im Automobilmarkt lasst sich die R elevanz dieses psychologischen Befundes auch fur Produkte konstatieren. Hieraus ergeben sich I mplikationen fur die segmentspezifische Produktgestaltung und das Variantenmanagement.

Causal Inference Using Mediation Analysis or Instrumental Variables - Full Mediation in the Absence of Conditional Independence

Thomas Otter is Professor of Marketing at Goethe University Frankfurt, Theodor-W.-AdornoPlatz 4, 60623 Frankfurt am Main, Germany, Phone: +49 798 34 646, E-mail: otter@ marketing.uni-frankfurt.de. * Corresponding author Max J. Pachali is Ph.D. Student at the Graduate School of Economics, Finance, and Management, Goethe University Frankfurt, Theodor-W.-Adorno-Platz 3, 60623 Frankfurt am Main, Germany, Phone: +49 798 34 648, E-mail: max.pachali@ hof.uni-frankfurt.de. Stefan Mayer is Postdoctoral Researcher in the Marketing Department at Goethe University Frankfurt, Theodor-W.Adorno-Platz 4, 60623 Frankfurt am Main, Germany, Phone: +49 798 34 692, E-mail: smayer@wiwi.uni-frankfurt.de. Jan R. Landwehr is Professor of Marketing at Goethe University Frankfurt, Theodor-W.Adorno-Platz 4, 60623 Frankfurt am Main, Germany, Phone: +49 798 34 631, E-mail: landwehr@wiwi.uni-frankfurt.de. Causal Inference Using Mediation Analysis or Instrumental Variables – Full Mediation in the Absence of Conditional Independence