Jan Van Looy

Player identification in online games: validation of a scale for measuring identification in MMOGs

This article proposes a scale for measuring player identification in massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs). Three dimensions have been derived from the literature, avatar identification, group identification, and game identification, whereby avatar identification is a second-order factor consisting of similarity identification, wishful identification, and embodied presence. Based on the results of a cross-sectional survey of 544 World of Warcraft players, the measurement instruments proposed factorial structure was confirmed and the constructs were successfully tested for convergent validity. Subsequently, support for nomological validity was gathered by testing nine theoretically rooted hypotheses linking the identification constructs to motivations for playing MMOGs. The results show that avatar identification is positively associated with roleplay, customization, and escapism; group identification with socializing and relationship; and game identification with escapism, discovery, advancement, and mechanics. These findings indicate that the Player Identification Scale provides a reliable measure of identification in online games ready to be used and further validated in subsequent research.

Digital games in the classroom? A contextual approach to teachers' adoption intention of digital games in formal education

Interest in using digital games for formal education has steadily increased in the past decades. When it comes to actual use, however, the uptake of games in the classroom remains limited. Using a contextual approach, the possible influence of factors on a school (N=60) and teacher (N=409) level are analyzed. Findings indicate that there is no effect of factors on the school level whereas on a teacher level, a model is tested, explaining 68% of the variance in behavioral intention, in which curriculum-relatedness and previous experience function as crucial determinants of the adoption intention. These findings add to previous research on adoption determinants related to digital games in formal education. Furthermore, they provide insight into the relations between different adoption determinants and their association with behavioral intention.

Scholars’ open debate paper on the World Health Organization ICD-11 Gaming Disorder proposal

Concerns about problematic gaming behaviors deserve our full attention. However, we claim that it is far from clear that these problems can or should be attributed to a new disorder. The empirical basis for a Gaming Disorder proposal, such as in the new ICD-11, suffers from fundamental issues. Our main concerns are the low quality of the research base, the fact that the current operationalization leans too heavily on substance use and gambling criteria, and the lack of consensus on symptomatology and assessment of problematic gaming. The act of formalizing this disorder, even as a proposal, has negative medical, scientific, public-health, societal, and human rights fallout that should be considered. Of particular concern are moral panics around the harm of video gaming. They might result in premature application of diagnosis in the medical community and the treatment of abundant false-positive cases, especially for children and adolescents. Second, research will be locked into a confirmatory approach, rather than an exploration of the boundaries of normal versus pathological. Third, the healthy majority of gamers will be affected negatively. We expect that the premature inclusion of Gaming Disorder as a diagnosis in ICD-11 will cause significant stigma to the millions of children who play video games as a part of a normal, healthy life. At this point, suggesting formal diagnoses and categories is premature: the ICD-11 proposal for Gaming Disorder should be removed to avoid a waste of public health resources as well as to avoid causing harm to healthy video gamers around the world.

Assessing the effectiveness of digital game-based learning

In recent years, research into the effectiveness of digital game-based learning (DGBL) has increased. However, a large heterogeneity in methods for assessing the effectiveness of DGBL exist, leading to questions regarding reliability and validity of certain methods. This has resulted in the need for a scientific basis to conduct this type of research, providing procedures, frameworks and methods that can be validated. The present study is part of a larger systematic process towards the development of a standardized procedure for conducting DGBL effectiveness studies. In a first phase, the variety in methods that are used for sampling, implementation of the interventions, measures and data analysis were mapped in a systematic literature review using Cochrane guidelines. The present paper reflects the second stage, where this variety in elements are presented to experts in psychology and pedagogy by means of semi-structured interviews, in order to define preferred methods for conducting DGBL effectiveness studies. The interview was structured according to five dimensions that were used in the literature review: 1) participants (e.g., characteristics of the sample involved) 2) intervention (e.g., contents, format, timings and treatment lengths, intervention(s) in control group(s)) 3) methods (sampling, assignment of participants to conditions, number of testing moments) 4) outcome measures (e.g., instruments used to measure a certain outcome) and 5) data-analysis. The interviews were transcribed and analyzed using qualitative software package nVivo. Our results show that areas for improvement involve the intervention dimension and the methods dimension. The proposed improvements relate to implementation of the interventions in both the experimental and control group, determining which elements are preferably omitted during the intervention (such as guidance by the instructor, extra elements that consist of substantive information) and which elements would be aloud (e.g., procedural help, training session). Also, variables on which similarity between experimental and control condition should be attained were determined (e.g., time exposed to intervention, instructor, day of the week). With regard to the methods dimension, proposed improvements relate to assignment of participants to conditions (e.g., variables to take into account when using blocked randomized design), general design (e.g. necessity of a pre-test and control group) test development (e.g., develop and pilot parallel tests) and testing moments (e.g., follow up after minimum 2 weeks). In sum, the present paper provides best practices that cover all aspects of the study design and consist of game specific elements. While several suggestions have been previously made regarding research design of DGBL effectiveness studies, these often do not cover all aspects of the research design. Hence, the results of this study can be seen as a base for a more systematic approach, which can be validated in the future in order to develop a standardized procedure for assessing the effectiveness of DGBL that can be applied flexibly across different contexts. Questions regarding current assessment practices of DGBL.Best practices for effectiveness assessment of educational games are defined.Interviews with experts in pedagogy/psychology were conducted.Areas for improvement and suggestions for improvement are defined.More systematic approach for effectiveness assessment in this field is recommended.

Towards a conceptual framework for assessing the effectiveness of digital game-based learning

In recent years, interest has grown in the systematic assessment of the effectiveness of digital game-based learning (DGBL). A conceptual framework describing what effectiveness means in the context of DGBL and which are its subcomponents has hitherto been lacking however. Hence, the goal of this paper is to propose a conceptualization and operationalization of effectiveness rooted in social-cognitive theory. In order to identify desired outcomes and be able to operationalize effectiveness, focus groups were organized with three stakeholder groups following a user requirements analysis methodology.Results indicate that three categories of desired outcomes can be distinguished: learning, motivational and efficiency outcomes. For the different outcomes, different subcomponents can be extracted which can be organized hierarchically. Learning outcomes that are seen as relevant to the effectiveness of DGBL are 1) increased interest in the subject matter, 2) improvement in objective performance (e.g., in a test), and 3) transfer, referring to the players ability to apply acquired knowledge or skills to real-world situations. Relevant motivational outcomes concern 1) enjoyment, the extent to which playing the game evoked an enjoyable experience, and 2) increased motivation to learn using DGBL. Efficiency outcomes relevant to DGBL effectiveness, finally, are related to 1) time management and 2) cost-effectiveness. Overall, it can be stated that a DGBL intervention is effective when it achieves similar or higher scores compared to other instructional methods in relation to any of the above mentioned outcomes without significantly (in the common, not the statistical sense) diminishing any of the others. An operationalization of digital game-based learning effectiveness is provided.The operationalization is based on desired outcomes of digital game-based learning.A user requirements analysis among relevant stakeholders groups was conducted.Learning, motivational and efficiency outcomes can be distinguished.

Cognitive abilities, digital games and arithmetic performance enhancement

Besides entertainment, games have shown to have the potential to impact a broader variety of cognitive abilities. Research has consistently shown that several aspects in cognition such as visual short-memory, multitasking and spatial skills can be enhanced by game play. In a previous study, it was found that playing Monkey Tales, a game aimed at training arithmetic skills, helped second grade pupils to increase their accuracy in mental calculation as compared to paper exercises. In this follow up study we explore whether traditional methods and game training differ in terms of the cognitive processes that both are able to impact. We incorporated standardized measures of working memory and visuo-motor skills. Additionally, the mathematics game was modified and its contents extracted to allow precise comparison between the gaming and paper exercises condition. Thus each single math exercise, type of question (e.g., multiple choice), quantity and order was perfectly matched in the game training and the traditional training conditions. Gains in arithmetical performance, and self-reported measures of enjoyment were also investigated. We found some evidence suggesting that arithmetic performance enhancement induced by game play and paper exercises differ not only in terms of enjoyment but also of working memory capacity improvements. We explore differences between traditional methods and game training.In both training conditions all math exercises were perfectly matched.We used standardized measures of working memory and visuo-motor skills.Differences in terms of enjoyment and working memory capacity were observed.

Fanboys, competers, escapists and time-killers: a typology based on gamers' motivations for playing video games

In this paper, the different general motivations of gamers for playing video games are explored. Surprisingly, to date little research has been devoted to the characterization of the gamer, based on general game motivations. By means of an online survey, we questioned 2985 Flemish gamers on 11 general game motivations. K-means clustering was used to distinguish four distinctive gamer profiles: the overall convinced gamer, the convinced competitive gamer, the escapist gamer and the pass-time gamer.

Player identification in online games: validation of a scale for measuring identification in MMORPGs

In this paper, we present a Player Identification (PI) scale for measuring identification in MMORPGs. Three main dimensions were derived from the literature (1) Avatar (character) Identification, (2) Group (guild) Identification and (3) Game (community) Identification whereby Avatar Identification is a second-order factor consisting of (1a) Perceived Similarity, (1b) Wishful Identification and (1c) Embodied Presence. Based on the results of a cross-sectional survey of 544 World of Warcraft players the measurement instruments proposed factorial structure was confirmed. Subsequently, the constructs were successfully tested both for convergent and discriminant validity. Finally, evidence for nomological validity was gathered by testing ten theoretically rooted hypotheses regarding the effects of Player Identification. The results showed that Avatar Identification positively predicts Empathy, Proteus effect and the motivations role-play, customization and escapism. Group Identification predicts socializing and relationship, and Game Identification predicts advancement, mechanics and escapism.

A Qualitative Inquiry into the Contextualized Parental Mediation Practices of Young Children’s Digital Media Use at Home

Technologies are increasingly adopted and used by young children at home. Parents play an important role in shaping their media use, keeping certain possibilities open for children to play, learn, and socialize while limiting others. Nevertheless, the literature on parental mediation of young children’s media use is scant. In this article, we describe a qualitative, mixed-method study involving 24 parents and 36 children aged 3 to 9, and focus on the contextual factors that shape (transitions between) parental mediation practices. The results point to the emergence of new manifestations of parental mediation and provide evidence of their dynamic, often paradoxical nature. In particular, the insights on distant mediation, various buddy styles, and participatory learning, as well as the value of a wholeness approach for understanding children’s conditions for media engagement, suggest new prospects for parental mediation literature.

Challenging the other: exploring the role of opponent gender in digital game competition for female players

Abstract The present study investigated the effect of opponent gender on the game experience of female players. Concretely, it looked into skill perception and player emotions of women in same gender and cross-gender game competition. We set up a 2×2×2 (male vs. female opponent×low vs. high competitive women×lost vs. won game) experimental design in which women were instructed to play against a proclaimed male and female competitor. Unknowingly, however, participants played against an AI, which was configured to produce a winning and a losing condition for each opponent by manipulating difficulty. Results indicated that opponent gender only had an effect on perceived stress, which was higher with male opponents. Moreover, players evaluated their own gaming skills as lower and the skills of presumed male opponents as higher when they thought they were playing against men. Importantly, our results also showed that the above described pattern for self-perceived skills and perceived opponent skills was modulated by trait competitiveness with a larger effect size for low competitive women. Overall, this study illustrates that gender dynamics affect the play experience of women in cross-gender gaming competition. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.