Jan Vorberger

Nanosecond formation of diamond and lonsdaleite by shock compression of graphite

The shock-induced transition from graphite to diamond has been of great scientific and technological interest since the discovery of microscopic diamonds in remnants of explosively driven graphite. Furthermore, shock synthesis of diamond and lonsdaleite, a speculative hexagonal carbon polymorph with unique hardness, is expected to happen during violent meteor impacts. Here, we show unprecedented in situ X-ray diffraction measurements of diamond formation on nanosecond timescales by shock compression of pyrolytic as well as polycrystalline graphite to pressures from 19u2009GPa up to 228u2009GPa. While we observe the transition to diamond starting at 50u2009GPa for both pyrolytic and polycrystalline graphite, we also record the direct formation of lonsdaleite above 170u2009GPa for pyrolytic samples only. Our experiment provides new insights into the processes of the shock-induced transition from graphite to diamond and uniquely resolves the dynamics that explain the main natural occurrence of the lonsdaleite crystal structure being close to meteor impact sites.

Matter under extreme conditions experiments at the Linac Coherent Light Source

The matter in extreme conditions end station at the Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS) is a new tool enabling accurate pump–probe measurements for studying the physical properties of matter in the high-energy density (HED) physics regime. This instrument combines the worlds brightest x-ray source, the LCLS x-ray beam, with high-power lasers consisting of two nanosecond Nd:glass laser beams and one short-pulse Ti:sapphire laser. These lasers produce short-lived states of matter with high pressures, high temperatures or high densities with properties that are important for applications in nuclear fusion research, laboratory astrophysics and the development of intense radiation sources. In the first experiments, we have performed highly accurate x-ray diffraction and x-ray Thomson scattering measurements on shock-compressed matter resolving the transition from compressed solid matter to a co-existence regime and into the warm dense matter state. These complex charged-particle systems are dominated by strong correlations and quantum effects. They exist in planetary interiors and laboratory experiments, e.g., during high-power laser interactions with solids or the compression phase of inertial confinement fusion implosions. Applying record peak brightness x-rays resolves the ionic interactions at atomic (Angstrom) scale lengths and measure the static structure factor, which is a key quantity for determining equation of state data and important transport coefficients. Simultaneously, spectrally resolved measurements of plasmon features provide dynamic structure factor information that yield temperature and density with unprecedented precision at micron-scale resolution in dynamic compression experiments. These studies have demonstrated our ability to measure fundamental thermodynamic properties that determine the state of matter in the HED physics regime.

Evidence for a glassy state in strongly driven carbon

Here, we report results of an experiment creating a transient, highly correlated carbon state using a combination of optical and x-ray lasers. Scattered x-rays reveal a highly ordered state with an electrostatic energy significantly exceeding the thermal energy of the ions. Strong Coulomb forces are predicted to induce nucleation into a crystalline ion structure within a few picoseconds. However, we observe no evidence of such phase transition after several tens of picoseconds but strong indications for an over-correlated fluid state. The experiment suggests a much slower nucleation and points to an intermediate glassy state where the ions are frozen close to their original positions in the fluid.

Observations of strong ion-ion correlations in dense plasmas

Using simultaneous spectrally, angularly, and temporally resolved x-ray scattering, we measure the pronounced ion-ion correlation peak in a strongly coupled plasma. Laser-driven shock-compressed aluminum at ∼3× solid density is probed with high-energy photons at 17.9u2009keV created by molybdenum He-α emission in a laser-driven plasma source. The measured elastic scattering feature shows a well-pronounced correlation peak at a wave vector of k=4A−1. The magnitude of this correlation peak cannot be described by standard plasma theories employing a linear screened Coulomb potential. Advanced models, including a strong short-range repulsion due to the inner structure of the aluminum ions are however in good agreement with the scattering data. These studies have demonstrated a new highly accurate diagnostic technique to directly measure the state of compression and the ion-ion correlations. We have since applied this new method in single-shot wave-number resolved S(k) measurements to characterize the physical pro...

Comparison of electron–ion energy transfer in dense plasmas obtained from numerical simulations and quantum kinetic theory

We evaluate various analytical models for the electron–ion energy transfer and compare the results to data from molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The models tested include energy transfer via strong binary collisions, Landau–Spitzer rates with different choices for the cut-off parameters in the Coulomb logarithm, rates based on Fermis golden rule (FGR) and theories taking coupled collective modes (CM) into account. In search of a model easy to apply, we first analyze different approximations of the FGR energy transfer rate. Then, we investigate several numerical studies using MD simulations and try to uncover CM effects in the data obtained. Most MD data published so far, except one study by Murillo et al. [23], show no distinct CM effects and, thus, can be interpreted within a FGR or binary collision approach. We show that this finding is related to the parameter regime, in particular the initial temperature difference, considered in these investigations.

Experimental discrimination of ion stopping models near the Bragg peak in highly ionized matter

The energy deposition of ions in dense plasmas is a key process in inertial confinement fusion that determines the α-particle heating expected to trigger a burn wave in the hydrogen pellet and resulting in high thermonuclear gain. However, measurements of ion stopping in plasmas are scarce and mostly restricted to high ion velocities where theory agrees with the data. Here, we report experimental data at low projectile velocities near the Bragg peak, where the stopping force reaches its maximum. This parameter range features the largest theoretical uncertainties and conclusive data are missing until today. The precision of our measurements, combined with a reliable knowledge of the plasma parameters, allows to disprove several standard models for the stopping power for beam velocities typically encountered in inertial fusion. On the other hand, our data support theories that include a detailed treatment of strong ion-electron collisions.

Observation of finite-wavelength screening in high-energy-density matter

A key component for the description of charged particle systems is the screening of the Coulomb interaction between charge carriers. First investigated in the 1920s by Debye and Hückel for electrolytes, charge screening is important for determining the structural and transport properties of matter as diverse as astrophysical and laboratory plasmas, nuclear matter such as quark-gluon plasmas, electrons in solids, planetary cores and charged macromolecules. For systems with negligible dynamics, screening is still mostly described using a Debye–Hückel-type approach. Here, we report the novel observation of a significant departure from the Debye–Hückel-type model in high-energy-density matter by probing laser-driven, shock-compressed plastic with high-energy X-rays. We use spectrally resolved X-ray scattering in a geometry that enables direct investigation of the screening cloud, and demonstrate that the observed elastic scattering amplitude is only well described within a more general approach.

Simulating x-ray Thomson scattering signals from high-density, millimetre-scale plasmas at the National Ignition Facility

We have developed a model for analysing x-ray Thomson scattering data from high-density, millimetre-scale inhomogeneous plasmas created during ultra-high pressure implosions at the National Ignition Facility in a spherically convergent geometry. The density weighting of the scattered signal and attenuation of the incident and scattered x-rays throughout the target are included using radial profiles of the density, opacity, ionization state, and temperature provided by radiation-hydrodynamics simulations. These simulations show that the scattered signal is strongly weighted toward the bulk of the shocked plasma and the Fermi degenerate material near the ablation front. We show that the scattered signal provides a good representation of the temperature of this highly nonuniform bulk plasma and can be determined to an accuracy of ca. 15% using typical data analysis techniques with simple 0D calculations. On the other hand, the mean ionization of the carbon in the bulk is underestimated. We suggest that this discrepancy is due to the convolution of scattering profiles from different regions of the target. Subsequently, we discuss modifications to the current platform to minimise the impact of inhomogeneities, as well as opacity, and also to enable probing of conditions more strongly weighted toward the compressed core.

X-ray Thomson scattering measurements of temperature and density from multi-shocked CH capsulesa)

Proof-of-principle measurements of the electron densities, temperatures, and ionization states of spherically compressed multi-shocked CH (polystyrene) capsules have been achieved using spectrally resolved x-ray Thomson scattering. A total energy of 13.5u2009kJ incident on target is used to compress a 70u2009μm thick CH shell above solid-mass density using three coalescing shocks. Separately, a laser-produced zinc He-α x-ray source at 9u2009keV delayed 200 ps-800 ps after maximum compression is used to probe the plasma in the non-collective scattering regime. The data show that x-ray Thomson scattering enables a complete description of the time-dependent hydrodynamic evolution of shock-compressed CH capsules, with a maximum measured density of ρu2009>u20096 g cm−3. In addition, the results demonstrate that accurate measurements of x-ray scattering from bound-free transitions in the CH plasma demonstrate strong evidence that continuum lowering is the primary ionization mechanism of carbon L-shell electrons.

The complex ion structure of warm dense carbon measured by spectrally resolved x-ray scatteringa)

We present measurements of the complex ion structure of warm dense carbon close to the melting line at pressures around 100u2009GPa. High-pressure samples were created by laser-driven shock compression of graphite and probed by intense laser-generated x-ray sources with photon energies of 4.75u2009keV and 4.95u2009keV. High-efficiency crystal spectrometers allow for spectrally resolving the scattered radiation. Comparing the ratio of elastically and inelastically scattered radiation, we find evidence for a complex bonded liquid that is predicted by ab-initio quantum simulations showing the influence of chemical bonds under these conditions. Using graphite samples of different initial densities we demonstrate the capability of spectrally resolved x-ray scattering to monitor the carbon solid-liquid transition at relatively constant pressure of 150u2009GPa. Showing first single-pulse scattering spectra from cold graphite of unprecedented quality recorded at the Linac Coherent Light Source, we demonstrate the outstanding pos...