Jan Woudstra

The ecology of exotic herbaceous perennials grown in managed, native grassy vegetation in urban landscapes

This paper presents the results of a survey of species of exotic (non-native) herbaceous perennials naturalised in grassy swards in a range of garden and other sites in Britain. Information on site climate, productivity status and the management regime in operation are provided together with an assessment of the extent to which species are increasing, stable or decreasing. Key factors that underpin the establishment and persistence of vegetative propagules of exotic herbaceous perennials under these conditions are reviewed. An assessment is made of the threat the practice of cultivating these species in grassy swards in urban parks poses to British native plant communities. A preliminary assessment is made of the response of landscape professionals and the general public to both the idea of using exotic species in this way, and the visual characteristics of these vegetation types.

Some European approaches to twentieth-century cemetery design: continental solutions for British dilemmas

Abstract When considering British cemetery design, it is the grand schemes of the early nineteenth century which are widely understood to be the finest design examples even though not all are still in use as cemeteries and in spite of the fact that many have been severely neglected and vandalized. They provide us with a legacy of what can be achieved when appropriate resources are available and where there is a will to create something of distinction. Unfortunately in British twentieth-century cemeteries this view has rarely been adopted. This is in contrast with continental Europe where there continues to be a strong tradition of high standard design and maintenance. This paper selects five inspiring examples which help to illustrate how different design approaches respond to social change, changing attitudes towards nature, landscape context and as a place for burial. Each of these schemes is evaluated and some conclusions are drawn which may help to contribute to the debate on cemetery design.

‘In Agriculture, Learn from Dazhai’: Mao Zedong's revolutionary model village and the battle against nature

Abstract When after 1968, millions of Chinese citizens were driven into the countryside in order to participate in agriculture as part of the Cultural Revolution, Dazhai was the model of what the countryside should be, not just socially, but also physically. In 1964 it came to prominence for its spirit of self-reliance, hard struggle and collectivism, and in this Dazhai came to embody the battle against nature and the hegemony of mankind. It was therefore not the natural features that were valued in the landscape, but the evidence of human endeavour. On heavily eroded mountainsides, terraces—an age-old way of cultivation—were re-invented and were re-presented as features of the modern age and evidence of the communist revolution. Similarly Dazhai village was promoted as a model of communal living.

‘Eight Views’ versus ‘Eight Scenes’: The History of the Bajing Tradition in China

Abstract Bajing, translated from Chinese as ‘Eight Views’, is a well-established genre of landscape painting inspired by the Xiao Xiang Eight Views painted by Song Di in the eleventh century. It was however a much wider concept, with one strand specifically relating to ‘real’ landscapes. This paper distinguishes for the first time the Bajing tradition of painting from that of real landscape, by introducing a distinctive terminology; that is, Eight Scenes, in order to distinguish the latter from the former. These were a series of landscapes selected and celebrated by a national, provincial or local government and promoted as places for outdoor leisure activities. The importance of this genre is shown as being worthy of study in its own right. The roots of an ancient tradition are explored with a view to seeing how various artistic expressions related to each other, by analysing one hundred sets of Bajing for what they depicted and revealed about peoples perception of nature and ancient leisure patterns. This culminates in a brief statement about their recent revival in a different guise under very different socio-economic circumstances, as national parks.

The Enamelled Mead: History and practice of exotic perennials grown in grassy swards

The history of the practice of growing exotic perennials in grassy swards, which is considered by some to be a new practice, is researched. The available information is surveyed, and a number of different trends are identified. It is concluded that there is a long pedigree, with the earliest verified evidence dating from the Middle Ages, from which time the practice has continued in private gardens, but has been applied in public parks only in the 20th century. The earliest known terminology for the practice, in use by the early 17th century, appears to be ‘enamelling’, but this word became disused during the 19th century, when it became seen as an aspect of ‘wild gardening’. During the 20th century the mediaeval representation of this practice has been referred to as ‘flowery mead’, while the contemporary 20th-century practice became known as ‘meadow gardening’.

Social order versus ‘natural’ disorder in the Chinese garden

This architectural and landscape case study of the Couple’s Garden in Suzhou addresses a conundrum in the Chinese garden. It hinges on the contrast between the ritual formality of the house’s halls...

Landscape Modernism Renounced : The Career of Christopher Tunnard (1910-1979)

Before the Second World War landscape architect Christopher Tunnard was the first author on Modernism in Landscape in the English language, but later became alarmed by the destructive forces of Post-war reconstruction. Between the 1950s and the 1970s he was in the forefront of the movement to save the city, becoming an acclaimed author sympathetic to preservation. Ironically it was the Modernist ethos that he had so fervently advocated before the war that was the justification for the dismemberment of great cities by officials, engineers and planners. This was not the first time that Tunnard had to re-evaluate his principles, as he had done so in the 1930s in rejecting Arts-and-Crafts in favour of Modernism. This book tracks his changing ideology, by reference to his writings, his colleagues and his work. Christopher Tunnard is one of the most influential figures in Landscape Architecture and his journey is one that still resonates in the discipline today. His leading role in first embracing the tenets of Modernism and then moving away from to embrace a more conservationist approach can be seen in the success and impact on the profession of those with whom he worked and taught.

‘Making Green the Motherland’: greening the Chinese socialist undertaking (1949–1978)

In 1956 Chairman Mao Zedong (1893–1976) issued the slogan ‘Making Green the Motherland’ (Lühua zuguo, 绿化祖国; figure 1) in order to mobilize the Chinese people for a national greening movement as part of the socialist undertaking. This movement was initiated to ensure afforestation of the countryside and create green spaces in cities, just as Mao’s revolution had accomplished establishing China as an independent socialist country in 1949 through his military strategy of ‘encircling the cities from the countryside and finally seizing the cities’. Previous studies on this movement either covered afforestation in the countryside, or how landscape professionals in cities responded to this slogan. The former study dates from soon after the Mao era (1949–1978) and shows the evidence of the success of the propaganda that emerged from the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) as it provided a positive image. As further and more objective data is becoming available, and a greater freedom of expression, it is now possible to submit the afforestation programme tomore critical scrutiny. The above mentioned study about greening of cities reveals that professionals had a different interpretation of the slogan and as a result concentrated on planning and design of green spaces in cities, rather than an assessment of how the greening movement had achieved wider social and environmental objectives. This study re-evaluates the achievements of the greening movement in the creation of the socialist nation. This is done by investigation of greening of both the countryside and cities, providing a holistic analysis of the movement, and investigating how aims and objectives for various categories of greening were argued, achieved and developed over time. This is put in perspective with respect to social and environmental consequences of policies, done through analysis and reinterpretation of contemporary sources of the Mao era, as well as interviews with professionals involved with schemes at the time. The establishment of socialism from the 1949 Liberation carried forward the pursuit of ‘modernity’, a concept that has been defined variously for China. Some consider ‘modernity’ as an imported concept, referring especially to that in the pre-1949 era, i.e. the mark of progress defined (and often imposed) by Western imperialist powers — the very powers against which the nation had struggled for its place in the world. Others, taking into account the creative force within the nation itself in the context of post-1949 China, argue ‘modernity is turned into the nation’s new identity, something that directs a people’s imagination about who they are, where they are now, and what they should collectively aspire to be’. As the post-1949 era could not be discussed separately from the pre-1949 one, this paper puts the two aspects together, viewing Chinese modernity as the progressive new identity pursued under Western influences. In this, greening played an important part, as the objective of achieving modernity was pursued through it, i.e. a modern nation is green. An analysis of the greening movement therefore also helps to increase the understanding of Chinese modernity.

The Nature of Cities: Ecological Visions and the American Urban Profession, 1920–1960

Jennifer S. Light, Baltimore, John Hopkins University Press, 2009, 328 pp., ISBN-13: 978 0 8018 9136 6 This book investigates the town planning tradition that emerged in the USA in the 1920s and wa...

The Italian Garden at Chiswick House

AbstractAfter the long reign of landscape gardens in England one of the earliest instances of the revival of formal gardens was the Italian Garden at Chiswick House, laid out on the southern part of the garden of Moreton Hall, which the 6th Duke of Devonshire had bought in 1812. Samuel Ware built a 300-feet-long conservatory and Lewis Kennedy provided a design for the garden in early 1814. Kennedys design was maintained for more than 40 years by Charles Edmunds, who assured that the garden was planted according to the latest fashions. It was initially planted in the mingled system with a range of perennials, but was one of the first gardens to experiment with massed planting of annuals in some of the beds. In 1880 its design was rationalised by the Marquess of Butes gardener, Michael May, to make it easier to maintain. Mays design included the restoration of a mingled planting scheme with a range of perennials, while massed planting of annuals was retained in some of the beds. In 1929 Chiswick House wa...