Jane E. Carland

Common Determinants of Single Channel Conductance within the Large Cytoplasmic Loop of 5-Hydroxytryptamine Type 3 and α4β2 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors

Homomeric 5-hydroxytryptamine type 3A receptors (5-HT3ARs) have a single channel conductance (γ) below the resolution of single channel recording (966 ± 75 fS, estimated by variance analysis). By contrast, heteromeric 5-HT3A/B and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) have picosiemen range γ values. In this study, single channel recordings revealed that replacement of cytoplasmic membrane-associated (MA) helix arginine 432 (-4′), 436 (0′), and 440 (4′) residues by 5-HT3B (-4′Gln, 0′Asp, and 4′Ala) residues increases γ to 36.5 ± 1.0 pS. The 0′ residue makes the most substantial contribution to γ of the 5-HT3AR. Replacement of 0′Arg by aspartate, glutamate (α7 nAChR subunit MA 0′), or glutamine (β2 subunit MA 0′) increases γ to the resolvable range (>6 pS). By contrast, replacement of 0′Arg by phenylalanine (α4 subunit MA 0′) reduced γ to 416 ± 107 fS. In reciprocal experiments with α4β2 nAChRs (γ = 31.3 ± 0.8 pS), replacement of MA 0′ residues by arginine in α4β2(Q443R) and α4(F588R)β2 reduced γ slightly. By contrast, the γ of double mutant α4(F588R)β2(Q443R) was halved. The MA -4′ and 4′ residues also influenced γ of 5-HT3ARs. Replacement of nAChR α4 or β2 MA 4′ residues by arginine made current density negligible. By contrast, replacement of both -4′ residues by arginine produced functional nAChRs with substantially reduced γ (11.4 ± 0.5 pS). Homology models of the 5-HT3A and α4β2 nAChRs against Torpedo nAChR revealed MA -4′, 0′, and 4′ residues within five intracellular portals. This locus may be a common determinant of ion conduction throughout the Cys loop receptor family.

Common determinants of single channel conductance within the large cytoplasmic loop of 5-HT3 and α4β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors

Homomeric 5-hydroxytryptamine type 3A receptors (5-HT3ARs) have a single channel conductance (γ) below the resolution of single channel recording (966 ± 75 fS, estimated by variance analysis). By contrast, heteromeric 5-HT3A/B and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) have picosiemen range γ values. In this study, single channel recordings revealed that replacement of cytoplasmic membrane-associated (MA) helix arginine 432 (-4′), 436 (0′), and 440 (4′) residues by 5-HT3B (-4′Gln, 0′Asp, and 4′Ala) residues increases γ to 36.5 ± 1.0 pS. The 0′ residue makes the most substantial contribution to γ of the 5-HT3AR. Replacement of 0′Arg by aspartate, glutamate (α7 nAChR subunit MA 0′), or glutamine (β2 subunit MA 0′) increases γ to the resolvable range (>6 pS). By contrast, replacement of 0′Arg by phenylalanine (α4 subunit MA 0′) reduced γ to 416 ± 107 fS. In reciprocal experiments with α4β2 nAChRs (γ = 31.3 ± 0.8 pS), replacement of MA 0′ residues by arginine in α4β2(Q443R) and α4(F588R)β2 reduced γ slightly. By contrast, the γ of double mutant α4(F588R)β2(Q443R) was halved. The MA -4′ and 4′ residues also influenced γ of 5-HT3ARs. Replacement of nAChR α4 or β2 MA 4′ residues by arginine made current density negligible. By contrast, replacement of both -4′ residues by arginine produced functional nAChRs with substantially reduced γ (11.4 ± 0.5 pS). Homology models of the 5-HT3A and α4β2 nAChRs against Torpedo nAChR revealed MA -4′, 0′, and 4′ residues within five intracellular portals. This locus may be a common determinant of ion conduction throughout the Cys loop receptor family.

Characterization of the Effects of Charged Residues in the Intracellular Loop on Ion Permeation in α1 Glycine Receptor Channels

The Cys loop receptor channels mediate fast synaptic transmission in the nervous system. The M2-demarcated transmembrane pore is an important determinant of their ion permeation properties. Portals within the intracellular domain are also part of the permeation pathway in cationic Cys loop receptors, with charged residues in a helical MA stretch partially lining these openings profoundly affecting channel conductance. It is unknown whether analogous portals contribute to the permeation pathway in anionic Cys loop receptors. We therefore investigated the influence of charged residues within the proposed MA stretch on functional properties of the homomeric glycine α1 receptor. Up to eight basic residues in the MA stretch were concurrently mutated to a negatively charged glutamate, and wild-type and mutant subunits were expressed in HEK-293 cells. Mutation of all eight residues produced a non-functional receptor. The greatest reduction in conductance at negative membrane potentials (from 92.2 ± 2.8 to 60.0 ± 2.2 picosiemens) was observed with glutamate present at the 377, 378, 385, and 386 positions (the 4E subunit). Inclusion of additional glutamate residues within this subunit did not decrease conductance further. Neutralizing these residues (the 4A subunit) caused a modest decrease in conductance (80.5 ± 2.3 picosiemens). Outward conductance at positive potentials was not markedly affected. Anion to cation selectivity and concentration-response relationships were unaffected by the 4A or 4E mutations. Our results identify basic residues affecting conductance in the glycine receptor, suggesting that portals are part of the extended permeation pathway but that the M2-demarcated channel pore is the dominant determinant of permeation properties in glycine receptors.

Novel structural determinants of single channel conductance and ion selectivity in 5-hydroxytryptamine type 3 and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors

Nicotinic acetylcholine (nACh) and 5‐hydroxytryptamine type 3 (5‐HT3) receptors are cation‐selective ion channels of the pentameric ligand‐gated ion channel (pLGIC) superfamily. Multiple lines of evidence adduced over the last 30 years indicate that the lining of the channel of such receptors is formed by the α‐helical second transmembrane (TM2) domain and flanking sequences contributed by each of the five subunits present within the receptor complex. Specific amino acid residues within, and adjacent to, the TM2 domain influence single channel conductance, ion selectivity, and other aspects of receptor function that include gating and desensitization. However, more recent work has revealed important structural determinants of single channel conductance and ion selectivity that are not associated with the TM2 domain. Direct experimental evidence indicates that the intracellular domain of eukaryotic pLGICs, in particular a region of the loop linking TM3 and TM4 termed the membrane‐associated (MA) stretch, exerts a strong influence upon ion channel biophysics. Moreover, recent computational approaches, complemented by experimentation, implicate the extracellular domain as an additional important determinant of ion conduction. This brief review describes how our knowledge of ion conduction and selectivity in cation‐selective pLGICs has evolved beyond TM2.

Structural Determinants of Ca2+ Permeability and Conduction in the Human 5-Hydroxytryptamine Type 3A Receptor

Cation-selective cysteine (Cys)-loop transmitter-gated ion channels provide an important pathway for Ca2+ entry into neurones. We examined the influence on Ca2+ permeation of amino acids located at intra- and extracellular ends of the conduction pathway of the human 5-hydroxytryptamine type 3A (5-HT3A) receptor. Mutation of cytoplasmic arginine residues 432, 436, and 440 to glutamine, aspartate, and alanine (the aligned residues of the human 5-HT3B subunit (yielding 5-HT3A(QDA)) increased PCa/PCs from 1.4 to 3.7. The effect was attributable to the removal of an electrostatic influence of the Arg-436 residue. Despite its relatively high permeability to Ca2+, the single channel conductance of the 5-HT3A(QDA) receptor was depressed in a concentration-dependent and voltage-independent manner by extracellular Ca2+. A conserved aspartate, located toward the extracellular end of the conduction pathway and known to influence ionic selectivity, contributed to the inhibitory effect of Ca2+ on macroscopic currents mediated by 5-HT3A receptors. We introduced a D293A mutation into the 5-HT3A(QDA) receptor (yielding the 5-HT3A(QDA D293A) construct) to determine whether the aspartate is required for the suppression of single channel conductance by Ca2+. The D293A mutation decreased the PCa/PCs ratio to 0.25 and reduced inwardly directed single channel conductance from 41 to 30 pS but did not prevent suppression of single channel conductance by Ca2+. The D293A mutation also reduced PCa/PCs when engineered into the wild-type 5-HT3A receptor. The data helped to identify key residues in the cytoplasmic domain (Arg-436) and extracellular vestibule (Asp-293) that markedly influence PCa/PCs and additionally directly demonstrated a depression of single channel conductance by Ca2+.

Glycine transport inhibitors for the treatment of pain.

Opioids, local anesthetics, anticonvulsant drugs, antidepressants, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are used to provide pain relief but they do not provide adequate pain relief in a large proportion of chronic pain patients and are often associated with unacceptable side effects. Inhibitory glycinergic neurotransmission is impaired in chronic pain states, and this provides a novel target for drug development. Inhibitors of the glycine transporter 2 (GlyT2) enhance inhibitory neurotransmission and show particular promise for the treatment of neuropathic pain. N-arachidonyl-glycine (NAGly) is an endogenous lipid that inhibits glycine transport by GlyT2 and also shows potential as an analgesic, which may be further exploited in drug development. In this review we discuss the role of glycine neurotransmission in chronic pain and future prospects for the use of glycine transport inhibitors in the treatment of pain.

Dynamic modification of a mutant cytoplasmic cysteine residue modulates the conductance of the human 5-HT3A receptor.

Structural models suggest that Arg436 lies within five cytoplasmic portals of the 5-HT3A receptor. We tested both the accessibility of residue 436 and the influence of its charge on single channel conductance (γ) by substituting Arg436 with Cys and examining the effect of methanethiosulfonate (MTS) reagents on γ. Inclusion of positively charged 2-aminoethyl-MTS (MTSEA) within the electrode solution reduced γ of 5-HT3A(R436C) receptors in outside-out patches from 7.8 ± 0.5 to 5.0 ± 0.5 picosiemens (pS). To increase γ, we substituted Arg436 by Cys in the 5-HT3A(R432Q,R440A) mutant, yielding the 5-HT3A(QCA) construct with a γ of 17.7 ± 0.4 pS. Modification of 5-HT3A(QCA) receptors by MTSEA or 2-(trimethylammonium) ethyl-MTS reduced γ to 8.7 ± 0.5 and 6.7 ± 0.4 pS, respectively, both significantly below that of channels exposed to nonpolar propyl-MTS. Extracellular MTSEA, but not 2-(trimethylammonium) ethyl-MTS, crossed the membrane and in so doing slowly (τ = 94 s) reduced γ. MTSEA more rapidly (τ = 15 s) reduced the γ of 5-HT3A(QCA) receptors in inside-out patches, an effect reversed by the reducing agent dithiothreitol. Cys436 modification by negatively charged 2-carboxyethyl-MTS and 2-sulfonatoethyl-MTS increasedγ to 23 ± 1.0 and 26 ± 0.7 pS, respectively. MTS reagents did not affect γ values for 5-HT3A(QDA) constructs with Cys substituted for Lys431 predicted to be outside the entrance to the portals. Collectively, the data demonstrate that the dynamic modification of the charge of a cytoplasmic residue regulates γ, consistent with the existence of cytoplasmic portals that impose a rate-limiting barrier to ion conduction in Cys loop receptors.

Novel structural determinants of single-channel conductance in nicotinic acetylcholine and 5-hydroxytryptamine type-3 receptors.

Nicotinic ACh (acetylcholine) and 5-HT3 (5-hydroxytryptamine type-3) receptors are cation-selective ion channels of the Cys-loop transmitter-gated ion channel superfamily. Numerous lines of evidence indicate that the channel lining domain of such receptors is formed by the alpha-helical M2 domain (second transmembrane domain) contributed by each of five subunits present within the receptor complex. Specific amino acid residues within the M2 domain have accordingly been demonstrated to influence both single-channel conductance (gamma) and ion selectivity. However, it is now clear from work performed on the homomeric 5-HT3A receptor, heteromeric 5-HT3A/5-HT3B receptor and 5-HT3A/5-HT3B receptor subunit chimaeric constructs that an additional major determinant of gamma resides within a cytoplasmic domain of the receptor termed the MA-stretch (membrane-associated stretch). The MA-stretch, within the M3-M4 loop, is not traditionally thought to be implicated in ion permeation and selection. Here, we describe how such observations extend to a representative neuronal nicotinic ACh receptor composed of alpha4 and beta2 subunits and, by inference, probably other members of the Cys-loop family. In addition, we will attempt to interpret our results within the context of a recently developed atomic scale model of the nicotinic ACh receptor of Torpedo marmorata (marbled electric ray).

Oleoyl-L-carnitine inhibits glycine transport by GlyT2.

Concentrations of extracellular glycine in the CNS are regulated by two Na+/Cl–‐dependent glycine transporters, GlyT1 and GlyT2. Selective inhibitors of GlyT1 have been developed for the treatment of schizophrenia, whilst selective inhibitors of GlyT2 are analgesic in animal models of pain. We have assessed a series of endogenous lipids as inhibitors of GlyT1 and GlyT2.

Mutagenic analysis of the intracellular portals of the human 5-HT3A receptor

Background: 5-HT3R cytoplasmic arginine residues, within a putative amphipathic α-helix (MA helix), influence unitary conductance (γ); how other residues within this motif affect γ is unknown. Results: Alanine-, arginine-, and cysteine-scanning mutagenesis reveal that γ is affected by seven additional residues. Conclusion: The charge of 10 MA helix residues influences γ. Significance: Our findings support a proposed structure of ion-conducting cytoplasmic portals. Structural models of Cys-loop receptors based on homology with the Torpedo marmorata nicotinic acetylcholine receptor infer the existence of cytoplasmic portals within the conduction pathway framed by helical amphipathic regions (termed membrane-associated (MA) helices) of adjacent intracellular M3-M4 loops. Consistent with these models, two arginine residues (Arg436 and Arg440) within the MA helix of 5-hydroxytryptamine type 3A (5-HT3A) receptors act singularly as rate-limiting determinants of single-channel conductance (γ). However, there is little conservation in primary amino acid sequences across the cytoplasmic loops of Cys-loop receptors, limiting confidence in the fidelity of this particular aspect of the 5-HT3A receptor model. We probed the majority of residues within the MA helix of the human 5-HT3A subunit using alanine- and arginine-scanning mutagenesis and the substituted cysteine accessibility method to determine their relative influences upon γ. Numerous residues, prominently those at the 435, 436, 439, and 440 positions, were found to markedly influence γ. This approach yielded a functional map of the 5-HT3A receptor portals, which agrees well with the homology model.