Jane Iles

An assessment of anxiety levels in dyslexic students in higher education

BACKGROUND It has long been hypothesized that children with learning disabilities, including dyslexia, may be highly vulnerable to emotional consequences such as anxiety. However, research has centred on school-aged children. AIMS The present study aimed to clarify these findings with dyslexic students in higher education. SAMPLES Sixteen students with dyslexia were compared with 16 students with no history of learning difficulties. METHODS Students were asked to complete a written questionnaire concerning trait anxiety levels. They were then told that they would be given a timed reading test and their state anxiety levels were measured using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1983). Finally, their reading was assessed using the Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE; Torgesen, Wagner, & Rashotte, 1999). RESULTS Dyslexic students showed slower reading speeds than controls. They also had higher levels of state anxiety and elevated levels of academic and social, but not appearance, anxiety. CONCLUSIONS Dyslexic students in higher education show anxiety levels that are well above what is shown by students without learning difficulties. This anxiety is not limited to academic tasks but extends to many social situations. It is proposed that assessment of emotional well-being should form part of the assessment of need for dyslexic students entering higher education.

Paternal depression: an examination of its links with father, child and family functioning in the postnatal period

Background: Maternal depression is common and is known to affect both maternal and child health. One of the mechanisms by which maternal depression exerts its effects on child health is through an increased rate of parental disharmony. Fathers also experience depression, but the impact of this on family functioning has been less studied. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between paternal depressive disorder and family and child functioning, in the first 3 months of a childs life. Methods: A controlled study comparing individual and familial outcomes in fathers with (n=54) and without diagnosed depressive disorder (n=99). Parental couple functioning and child temperament were assessed by both paternal and maternal report. Results: Depression in fathers is associated with an increased risk of disharmony in partner relationships, reported by both fathers and their partners, controlling for maternal depression. Few differences in infants reported temperament were found in the early postnatal period. Conclusions: These findings emphasize the importance of considering the potential for men, as well as women, to experience depression in the postnatal period. Paternal symptoms hold the potential to impact upon fathers, their partners, and their children. Depression and Anxiety, 2011.

Posttraumatic stress symptoms and postpartum depression in couples after childbirth: the role of partner support and attachment.

AIM The roles of partner attachment and perceptions of partner support were explored in relation to symptoms of posttraumatic stress and postpartum depression in couples within the first three postnatal months. METHODS Participants (n=372) were recruited within the first seven days postpartum, and completed questionnaire measures of trait anxiety, symptoms of acute posttraumatic stress, and perceptions of partner support. Postal questionnaires were completed at six weeks and three months, assessing attachment, perception of partner support, symptoms of posttraumatic stress, and postpartum depression. Two hundred and twelve couples completed all time-points. RESULTS Results indicated that symptoms were significantly related within couples. Mens acute trauma symptoms predicted their partners subsequent symptoms of posttraumatic stress. Less secure attachment and dissatisfaction with partner support were associated with higher levels of postpartum depression and posttraumatic stress. CONCLUSIONS Mens and womens responses following childbirth appear to be strongly interlinked; services should target both members of the dyad.

Intergenerational transmission of parenting: findings from a UK longitudinal study

Background: The quality of parenting is associated with a wide range of child and adult outcomes, and there is evidence to suggest that some aspects of parenting show patterns of intergenerational transmission. This study aimed to determine whether such intergenerational transmission occurs in mothers and fathers in a UK birth cohort. Methods: The study sample consisted of 146 mothers and 146 fathers who were recruited from maternity wards in England and followed up for 24 months [‘Generation 2’ (G2)]. Perceptions of their own parenting [by ‘Generation1’ (G1)] were assessed from G2 parents at 12 months using the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI). G2 parents were filmed interacting with their ‘Generation 3’ (G3) children at 24 months. Results: We found that G1 mothers’ ‘affection’ was associated with positive parenting behaviour in the G2 fathers (‘positive responsiveness’ β = 0.19, P = 0.04 and ‘cognitive stimulation’ β = 0.26, P < 0.01). G1 mothers’ ‘control’ was associated with negative parenting behaviour in G2 mothers (decreased ‘engagement’ β = −0.19, P = 0.04), and negative parenting behaviour in G2 fathers (increased ‘control’ β = 0.18, P = 0.05). None of the G1 fathers’ parenting variables were significantly associated with G2 parenting. Conclusions: There is evidence of intergenerational transmission of parenting behaviour in this highly educated UK cohort, with reported parenting of grandmothers associated with observed parenting in both mothers and fathers. No association was seen with reported parenting of grandfathers. This raises the possibility that parenting interventions may have benefits that are realised across generations.

Fathers, fathering and child psychopathology

The last few years have seen a steady increase in research addressing the potential influence of fathers on their childrens development. There has also been a clearer acknowledgement of the need to study families as a complex system, rather than just focusing on individual aspects of functioning in one or other parent. Increased father involvement and more engaged styles of father-infant interactions are associated with more positive outcomes for children. Studies of paternal depression and other psychopathology have begun to elucidate some of the key mechanisms by which fathers can influence their childrens development. These lessons are now being incorporated into thinking about engaging both mothers and fathers in effective interventions to optimise their childrens health and development.

Commentary: Getting fathers into parenting programmes – a reflection on Panter‐Brick et al. (2014)

Research, policy and clinical practice focussed on engaging and working with fathers and their children often seems to oscillate between extremes. Where policy documents relating to childrens health and wellbeing do include fathers it is often in a restricted way, and similarly discussions about the role of fathers in the media are often one-dimensional. It is sometimes hard to escape a feeling of despondency at the continuing exchanges, too often made ignoring or misinterpreting years of research regarding the importance of co-parenting and the involvement of fathers and other carers. One of the great contributions of child and adolescent mental health professionals has been the drawing of attention to the importance of family processes and systemic thinking, yet in relation to parenting, this seems to have been increasingly overlooked in recent years with an increased focus on attachment or social learning inspired approaches for a single parent-child dyad. In this issue of the JCPP, in a thorough and timely review, Catherine Panter-Brick and colleagues call for a clear change to the way parenting programmes are considered, studied and implemented. In this commentary, we reflect on this call and look at three challenges for CAMHS professionals.

FATHER–CHILD INTERACTIONS AT 3 MONTHS AND 24 MONTHS: CONTRIBUTIONS TO CHILDREN'S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AT 24 MONTHS

ABSTRACT The quality of father–child interactions has become a focus of increasing research in the field of child development. We examined the potential contribution of father–child interactions at both 3 months and 24 months to childrens cognitive development at 24 months. Observational measures of father–child interactions at 3 and 24 months were used to assess the quality of fathers’ parenting (n = 192). At 24 months, the Mental Developmental Index (MDI) of the Bayley Scales of Infant Development, Second Edition (N. Bayley, 1993) measured cognitive functioning. The association between interactions and cognitive development was examined using multiple linear regression analyses, adjusting for paternal age, education and depression, infant age, and maternal sensitivity. Children whose fathers displayed more withdrawn and depressive behaviors in father–infant interactions at 3 months scored lower on the MDI at 24 months. At 24 months, children whose fathers were more engaged and sensitive as well as those whose fathers were less controlling in their interactions scored higher on the MDI. These findings were independent of the effects of maternal sensitivity. Results indicate that father–child interactions, even from a very young age (i.e., 3 months) may influence childrens cognitive development. They highlight the potential significance of interventions to promote positive parenting by fathers and policies that encourage fathers to spend more time with their young children.

Adapting and developing a video-feedback intervention for co-parents of infants at risk of externalising behaviour problems (VIPP-Co): A feasibility study

Background: Recent research on early interventions with parents of infants at risk of externalising behaviour problems indicates that focusing on co-parenting and involving fathers in treatment may enhance effectiveness. This article reports the development and preliminary evaluation of a brief intervention: video-feedback intervention to promote positive parenting and sensitive discipline for co-parents (VIPP-Co). Methods: Families who reported to be struggling with their infant’s behaviour were recruited from the community and received six home-based sessions of VIPP-Co. The primary outcome was feasibility of the adapted intervention, assessed using semi-structured questionnaires and interviews post-intervention. Preliminary clinical outcome measures were also recorded. Results: In total, five families with infants between 10 and 24 months completed the intervention. Feedback data documented high rates of acceptability and feasibility. All fathers and mothers completing the intervention reported that it positively impacted their understanding of their child’s thoughts and feelings, as well as their approach to individual parenting and co-parenting. Additional preliminary outcome data indicated positive changes in parent–chid interaction and a positive trend was found for infant behaviour, parental well-being and parent relationship adjustment across the intervention. Conclusions: The overall results of this study are encouraging, but VIPP-Co must be evaluated with larger samples to explore its efficacy.

Depression and playfulness in fathers and young infants: physical play with peaks of emotional excitement in 3-month father-infant interactions

Background: Depression in fathers in the postnatal period is associated with an increased risk of some adverse child developmental outcomes. One possible mechanism for the familial transmission of risk is through the negative effects of depression on parenting and the parentchild relationship. So far, evidence indicates that depressed fathers tend to be more withdrawn in their early interactions. However, the interaction dimensions studied to date may not be able to detect and accurately classify unique features of father-infant play – including physically stimulating and highly rousing episodes of play. Hence, in this matched design comparison study, we set out to examine, for the first time, links between diagnosed paternal depression in the postnatal period and playfulness in father-infant interactions. Methods: Fathers and their infants were assessed when the infants were 3 months old. Paternal depression was diagnosed using a structured psychiatric interview. Currently depressed (n=19) and non-depressed (n=19) fathers were individually matched on age and education. Fathers were filmed playing with their children. Four dimensions were coded for paternal playfulness during free-play: physicality, playful excitation, tactile stimulation and active engagement. Results: Depressed fathers, compared to non-depressed fathers, engaged in fewer episodes of playful excitation (mean scores: 0.71 vs.2.53, p = 0.005), less gentle touch (mean time: 38.57 vs. 53.37, p = 0.015) and less active engagement (mean scores: 2.29 vs 3.24, p = 0.044). When controlling for infant fretfulness, the findings remained largely unchanged. Limitations: The sample size was small and the sample was limited to mostly white, welleducated fathers. Conclusions: Playful paternal behaviours as early as 3 months differ between fathers with and without depression. These changes may help in understanding children’s risk in relation to paternal psychopathology and could be a target for future family interventions.

Depression and playfulness in fathers and young infants: A matched design comparison study

Background Depression in fathers in the postnatal period is associated with an increased risk of some adverse child developmental outcomes. One possible mechanism for the familial transmission of risk is through the negative effects of depression on parenting and the parent-child relationship. So far, evidence indicates that depressed fathers tend to be more withdrawn in their early interactions. However, the interaction dimensions studied to date may not be able to detect and accurately classify unique features of father-infant play – including physically stimulating and highly rousing episodes of play. Hence, in this matched design comparison study, we set out to examine, for the first time, links between diagnosed paternal depression in the postnatal period and playfulness in father-infant interactions. Methods Fathers and their infants were assessed when the infants were 3 months old. Paternal depression was diagnosed using a structured psychiatric interview. Currently depressed (n = 19) and non-depressed (n = 19) fathers were individually matched on age and education. Fathers were filmed playing with their children. Four dimensions were coded for paternal playfulness during free-play: physicality, playful excitation, tactile stimulation and active engagement. Results Depressed fathers, compared to non-depressed fathers, engaged in fewer episodes of playful excitation (mean scores: 0.71 vs.2.53, p = 0.005), less gentle touch (mean time: 38.57 vs. 53.37, p = 0.015) and less active engagement (mean scores: 2.29 vs 3.24, p = 0.044). When controlling for infant fretfulness, the findings remained largely unchanged. Limitations The sample size was small and the sample was limited to mostly white, well-educated fathers. Conclusions Playful paternal behaviours as early as 3 months differ between fathers with and without depression. These changes may help in understanding children’s risk in relation to paternal psychopathology and could be a target for future family interventions.