Jane Knight

The Internationalization of Higher Education: Motivations and Realities.

Globalization and internationalization are related but not the same thing. Globalization is the context of economic and academic trends that are part of the reality of the 21st century. Internationalization includes the policies and practices undertaken by academic systems and institutions—and even individuals—to cope with the global academic environment. The motivations for internationalization include commercial advantage, knowledge and language acquisition, enhancing the curriculum with international content, and many others. Specific initiatives such as branch campuses, cross-border collaborative arrangements, programs for international students, establishing English-medium programs and degrees, and others have been put into place as part of internationalization. Efforts to monitor international initiatives and ensure quality are integral to the international higher education environment.

Internationalization Remodeled: Definition, Approaches, and Rationales:

The world of higher education is changing and the world in which higher education plays a significant role is changing. The international dimension of higher education is becoming increasingly important, complex, and confusing. It is therefore timely to reexamine and update the conceptual frameworks underpinning the notion of inter-nationalization in light of today’s changes and challenges. The purpose of this article is to study internationalization at both the institutional and national/sector level. Both levels are important. The national/sector level has an important influence on the international dimension through policy, funding, programs, and regulatory frameworks. Yet it is usually at the institutional level that the real process of internationalization is taking place. This article analyses the meaning, definition, rationales, and approaches of internationalization using a bottom-up (institutional) approach and a top-down (national/sector) approach and examines the dynamic relationship between these two levels. Key policy issues and questions for the future direction of internationalization are identified.

Education Hubs: A Fad, a Brand, an Innovation?

The last decade has seen significant changes in all aspects of internationalization but most dramatically in the area of education and research moving across national borders. The most recent developments are education hubs. The term education hub is being used by countries who are trying to build a critical mass of local and foreign actors—including students, education institutions, companies, knowledge industries, science and technology centers—who, thorough interaction and in some cases colocation, engage in education, training, knowledge production, and innovation initiatives. It is understood that countries have different objectives, priorities, and take different approaches to developing themselves as a reputed center for higher education excellence, expertise, and economy. However, given higher education’s current preoccupation with competitiveness, global branding, and rankings, one is not sure whether a country’s plan to develop itself as an education hub is a fad, the latest branding strategy, or in fact, an innovation worthy of investment and serious attention. This article reviews and compares the developments in six countries which claim to be an education hub. It explores the meaning of education hub, introduces a working definition, and proposes a typology of three kinds of education hubs as follows: student hub, skilled work force hub, and knowledge/innovation hub. Furthermore, it identifies issues requiring further research and reflection on whether hubs are a fad, a brand or an innovation worthy of serious attention and investment.

The changing landscape of higher education internationalisation – for better or worse?

Internationalisation has transformed the higher education landscape around the world and has dramatically changed itself. Some question whether the change is for better or worse given some of the unintended consequences of internationalisation such as commercialisation, diploma and accreditation mills, international rankings and the great brain race. The importance of internationalisation is recognised but are the benefits, risks and processes fully understood? This article takes a hard look at new developments and challenges related to the international dimension of higher education. It argues for focusing on the collaborative, mutual benefit, capacity building, and exchange aspects of internationalisation to optimise the benefit for individuals (students and staff), for higher education institutions (learning, research, service) and for the country and region as well.

Monitoring the Quality and Progress of Internationalization

This article emphasizes the importance of monitoring and evaluating internationalization initiatives and introduces some preliminary measures to track the progress and quality of different elements and strategies of internationalization. It examines the notions of quality and quality assessment as they relate to internationalization. The concept of internationalization tracking measures is introduced as one approach that institutions can consider to monitor and review their internationalization strategies. A framework and an example of draft tracking measures are put forward for discussion and testing. These measures are still a work in progress. They need to be pilot tested, analyzed, and refined. Institutions need to think about developing a series of tracking measures that are relevant and useful to their own priorities and stage of development. Some of the proposed tracking measures will be more useful than others. Additional tracking measures will need to be developed.

CROSSBORDER EDUCATION: AN ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK FOR PROGRAM AND PROVIDER MOBILITY

It is true that academic mobility and education exchange across borders have been a central feature of higher education for centuries. The fact that “universe” is key to the concept of university demonstrates the presence of the international dimension since the founding of universities as institutions of higher education and research. The international mobility of students and scholars are longstanding forms of academic mobility but, it is only during the last two decades that more emphasis has been placed on the movement of education programs, higher education institutions (HEIs), and new commercial providers across national borders. The knowledge society, ICTs, and the market economy are increasing the demand for higher and continuing education. This is leading to increased crossborder education provision involving new types of education providers, new modes of delivery, new programs and qualifications, new partnerships and network models, and new national and regional regulations. A fascinating but very complex world of crossborder education is emerging. The last five years have been a hotbed of innovation and new developments. The “Breaking News Service” of the Observatory of Higher Education (OBHE) track and report on many of these new developments, including the following (OBHE, 2002–2004). Phoenix University has become the largest private university in the United States (owned and operated by the Apollo Group Company) and is now present or delivering courses in Puerto Rico, The Netherlands, Mexico, and Canada. Other Apollo Group companies are offering courses in Brazil, India, and China. The Netherlands Business School (Universitiet Nijenrode) has recently J.C. Smart (ed.), Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research, Vol. XXI, 345–395. C � 2006 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands.

Student Mobility and Internationalization: Trends and Tribulations.

There is no question that internationalization, and particularly international student mobility, has transformed the higher education landscape in the last decade. It has brought diverse benefits to students, institutions, communities and countries. But there are unanticipated outcomes and risks as well. The purpose of this article is look at the complexities and current trends of student mobility and to invite reflection on some of the new developments and unintended consequences. These include granting and recognition of academic credentials; diploma and accreditation mills; collaborative programs such as joint or double degree programs and twinning and franchise arrangements; the great brain race and its implications for brain gain, brain drain, and brain train; the competitiveness agenda; status building and world rankings; regional identity and global citizenship. These macro issues often become an implicit part of the culture or environment of international education without being questioned. Focusing on some worrisome trends and outcomes of new developments in student mobility and internationalization does not deny the multitude of positive results; it is only an attempt to encourage a 360–degree look at the current state of student mobility and to encourage more research and reflection on some important trends and unexpected results.

The Past, Present, and Future of Internationalization in Japan:

The purpose of this special volume containing five articles dedicated to the internationalization of higher education in Japan is to provide information, analysis, and insight on the current goals, rationales, policies, and challenges facing internationalizations role as way to increase research excellence, profile, and competitiveness within Asia and the world beyond. Collectively, they paint a picture of a country that is supporting the higher education sector to be a key actor in helping Japan become the “Asian Gateway” to the rest of the world. To understand the nature of internationalization of higher education in Japan, it is important to review the changes in the international dimension of higher education during the past decades. Given the pivotal role that foreign students have played in the history of Japans international academic relations, this topic is at the centre of a review of what could be called the “three primary phases” of internationalization from 1950 to the present day.

International Universities: Misunderstandings and Emerging Models?.

Internationalization has transformed higher education institutions and systems but there is much confusion as to what an international, binational, transnational, cosmopolitan, multinational, or global university actually means. There is no standardized model for an international university, nor should there be, but a deeper understanding of different types of international institutions is necessary. This article examines key characteristics of three generic models or generations of international universities. The classic model or first generation is an internationalized university with a diversity of international partnerships, international students and staff, and multiple international and intercultural collaborative activities at home and abroad. This is the most common model. The second generation is called the satellite model, which includes universities with satellite offices around the world in the form of branch campuses, research centers, and management/contact offices. Internationally co-founded universities constitute the third and most recent generation of international universities. These are stand-alone institutions co-founded or co-developed by two or more partner institutions from different countries. This article elaborates on the three models, provides examples of international co-founded institutions, identifies a number of issues and challenges, and poses the question as to what the next model of international universities might look like.

Trade Talk: An Analysis of the Impact of Trade Liberalization and the General Agreement on Trade in Services on Higher Education

The international dimension of higher education is now becoming a major issue of discussion in trade talks and negotiations around the world. Why? Because education is one of 12 service sectors covered bythe General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). The current debate on the impact of GATS is rather polarized. Critics focus on the threat to the role of government, public good, and qualityaspects of higher education. Supporters highlight the benefits that more trade can bring in terms of innovation through new deliverysystems and providers and greater student access and economic value. This article aims to take a balanced approach and examines both the risks and opportunities that GATS can bring to the higher education sector and tries to identifyimplications and directions for higher education policy.