Jane M. Berry

Cognitive Self-efficacy in Relation to Personal Mastery and Goal Setting across the Life Span

This article is an integrative review of empirical studies of cognitive self-efficacy from childhood through old age. Issues of definition and measurement are addressed and the relation of self-efficacy to personal mastery is evaluated. Research on academic achievement in children and adolescents, complex decision-making in young adults, and memory and intellectual functioning in older adults supports a variety of theoretically driven hypotheses regarding the sources and effects of self-efficacy. Percepts of self-efficacy are based on a variety of sources of information, including personal mastery and perceived control beliefs. Self-efficacy has predictable effects on a variety of task engagement variables (e.g. persistence, effort, goal setting, strategy usage, chioce) that mediate the relationship between self-efficacy and performance. Generalisations regarding the applicability of self-efficacy to understanding cognitive development across the life span are discussed in terms of age-relevant domains and it is argued that a life span treatment of self-efficacy development is particularly compelling because both life span theory and self-efficacy theory emphasise domain specificity.

Reliability and validity of the Memory Self-Efficacy Questionnaire.

The development and psychometric properties of the Memory Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (MSEQ), a self-report measure of memory ability (Self-Efficacy Level) and confidence (Self-Efficacy Strength), are described. The MSEQ was rationally constructed using 50 memory items with face and content validity. The MSEQ and its alternate versions were examined in three experiments with younger and older adult samples. Satisfactory estimates of internal consistency and test-retest stability were obtained. Canonical correlation analyses provided preliminary support for the MSEQs criterion and construct validity. Although additional psychometric work is needed, this initial investigation of the MSEQ suggests that it may be a useful tool for research on memory self-evaluation in adult age groups. Reliability and validity are strong, the questionnaire shows expected adult age differences in self-evaluation, and the theoretical framework of self-efficacy provides useful hypotheses regarding developmental changes and individual differences in self-evaluation. Current investigations of memory and aging have moved beyond simplistic descriptions of deficits attributed to chronological age toward an integration of the relevant task, context, and person variables that influence memory performance (e.g., Arbuckle, Gold, & Andres, 1986; Craik, Byrd, & Swanson, 1987; Dixon & Hertzog, 1988; Hartley, 1986;Labouvie-ViefS Dixon & Hultsch, 1983b). It has been difficult, however, to draw conclusions from such studies because there are dramatic variations in the measurement of prediction and performance. The purpose of this article is to review previous measures and describe the psychometric properties of a recently developed memory prediction questionnaire derived from selfefficacy principles (Bandura, 1977, 1982, 1986). When used in conjunction with more generalized measures of memory be

Flattering and unflattering personality portraits of integratively simple and complex managers

Research has revealed a good deal about both the situational determinants and judgmental and behavioral consequences of integrative complexity. Little is known, however, about people who are prone to think in integratively simple or complex ways. The present study fills this gap by drawing on data collected during in-depth assessments of master of business administration candidates. Integrative complexity was correlated with a broad range of self-report, observer-rating, semiprojective, and managerial-simulation measures. Results revealed a more complex pattern of correlates than one would expect from the flattering theoretical portrayals of integrative complexity. On self-report measures, complex persons scored higher on openness and creativity and lower on social compliance and conscientiousness. On personality-observer ratings, they emerged as narcissistic and somewhat antagonistic. On managerial-observer ratings, complex persons emerged as higher on initiative and self-objectivity. On semiprojective measures, complex persons scored higher on power motivation. The integratively complex manager is reminiscent of creative architects, scientists, and writers who participated in previous assessments over the past 3 decades.

Memory self-efficacy in its social cognitive context.

Publisher Summary This chapter explores the present status of the memory self-efficacy (MSE) research in social cognitive context and suggests new research directions. MSE refers to a dynamic, self-evaluative system of beliefs and judgments regarding ones memory competence and confidence. MSE has evolved since the mid-1980s to its present identity and status in the cognitive aging and adult developmental research literature. Self-efficacy theory and methods provide a rich theoretical network of testable, falsifiable hypotheses. Some hypotheses have received strong empirical support, such as those applied to achievement domains, including mathematics, and writing. Research on mediational effects supports the reciprocal nature of self-efficacy and goal setting/attainment, although not equivocally. The theoretical strengths and empirical yield of mainstream self-efficacy research have guided the MSE research efforts. This chapter presents MSE research from the lab that has been conducted from the orienting framework of self-efficacy theory and methodology. To realize the full potential of MSE as an important adult developmental and cognitive aging research constructs, MSE researchers need to move beyond their emphases on measurement and modeling.

Psychometric Properties of Scores on Three Black Racial Identity Scales

In this study, we examined the internal consistency and the structural validity of scores on the African Self-Consciousness Scale (ASCS), the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity (MIBI), and the Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS). Participants consisted of 225 African American college students—75 attending predominantly White institutions (PWIs) and 150 attending historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs). Internal consistency estimates were above .60 for scores on one ASCS subscale, six MIBI subscales, and six CRIS subscales. Exploratory factor analytic procedures supported a two-factor structure for ASCS scores, a five-factor structure for MIBI scores, and a six-factor structure for CRIS scores. Implications for Black racial identity and scale development are discussed.

Type A behavior, age, and psychological well-being.

We investigated psychological well-being among Type A and B individuals across the age span. We hypothesized that the hard-driving, achievement-oriented lifestyle exhibited by Type As would be adaptive in younger age groups, but would lead to lower well-being in later life because of increased limitations on the range and level of ones activities. By contrast, the more relaxed, easygoing style of the Type B matches better the slower pace of old age, but is not as conducive to success in younger age groups. Thus we expected older Type Bs more than younger Type Bs to exhibit greater well-being. Results confirmed these hypotheses, but indicated that psychological differences may be mediated in part by differences in physical well-being. Furthermore, experience with life events, and the structure and function of social networks, may contribute to the differences in well-being.

Self-schematic representation of the type A and B behavior patterns

Past research has established clear behavioral differences between Type A and B individuals. The purpose of our research was to examine how these behavioral differences are represented in the self-definitions of Type As and Bs. We investigated the existence of Type A and B self-schemata by using two tasks designed to measure the influence of these hypothetical structures on speed of processing and memory interference. During an initial task, Type As and Bs made self-relevant decisions (like me, not like me) in response to trait adjectives previously scaled as Type A, Type B, or neutral in content. Reaction times for the decisions were measured, and results indicated that both Type As and Bs made faster decisions for schema-compatible responses than for schema-incompatible responses. On a second task, Type As and Bs were tested for recognition memory after they attempted to memorize half of the aforementioned trait list. Memory errors were examined and indicated that Type As and Bs made more errors that were compatible with their respective self-schemata. Taken together, these results indicate that a Type A and B distinction forms a reliable organizing framework for the self-definitions of Type As and Bs. The existence of stable cognitive structures that parallel the behavioral differences between Type As and Bs has important implications for both theory and application.

Cognitive Efficacy across the Life Span: Introduction to the Special Series.

A brief background and the rationale for examining personal beliefs of efficac y and control as related to adulthood cognition and memory are presented in this introduction to the special series. The research presented in the series draws on theory and research from several fields, includin g personality and social psychology, child development, and social learning and cognition. Although particular emphasis is placed on the self-efficacy construct (Bandura, 1977) and its utility in studying cognitive behavior in adults, this introdaction also highlights related work on achievement behavior in children (e.g., Dweck, 1975, 1986; Schunk, 1981, 1982). The series comprises four empirical articles and one conceptual commentary. In the commentary, Bandura argues that self-efficacy judgments are powerful determinants of. yet are also determined by, human cognition, affect, and behavior. It is this theoretical framework that guided the research presented in this scries. The five articles that make up this special series share the general premise that personal beliefs are related integrally to behavior and that this relationship changes with age. More specifically, these articles focus on the nature and function of selfbeliefs of personal efficacy and control as they are related to cognition in adulthood. The model on which these studies are based assumes that self-knowledge of abilities derives from, yet also determines, behavior in a dynamic and mutually reciprocal developmental process. This model is consistent with a contextual approach to cognitive development wherein chronological age per se is no longer regarded as a sufficient explanation for age-related varianc e in cognitive performance. Instead , the roles of task, person, and situational variables have gained recognition as critical components for understanding cognition in adulthood (Arbuckle, Gold, & Andres, 1986; Craik, Byrd, &

Adult Age, Information Processing, and Partial Report Performance

Previous investigations using the partial report technique for examining adult age differences in iconic memory have suggested that older adults are less able to extract information stored in the icon than are young adults. The present study examined the hypothesis that poorer partial report performance on the part of older adults involves age-related differences in the speed of visual and auditory information processing. Elderly (M = 67 years) and young (M = 23.5 years) adults were contrasted on partial report, whole report, backward masking, and choice reaction time tasks. Results indicated that the older age group exhibited a smaller partial report advantage than did their younger counterparts. This age difference was found to be related in part to increases with age in the time required to encode and identify visual stimuli but was not related to the time required to translate auditory cues into recall instructions. In other words, the slowdown in visual information processing speed that accompanies increased age contributes to age differences in performance on tasks involving iconic memory.

At the intersection of personality and adult development

Abstract People change and remain the same over time. This assertion is simple but not simplistic. Two decades of dogged research on the change-stability debate have finally led proponents on both sides to cede: “Its both.” Meta-analyses of personality research ( Roberts & DelVecchio, 2000 ) reveal that different statistical indices provide different answers to the change-stability question: rank-order correlation coefficients support stability, group and individual mean level indices support change. Yet how much change occurs, and when? For which traits and states? What is the relevance of change versus stability for various outcomes? Although trait structure and rank-order position may change little to not at all over time, are the manifestations of traits and their associations with daily activities and life events as stable? Who is more likely to change, and how does change at the fundamental level of personality affect other life domains, such as health, emotion, relationships, leisure, and happiness? This special issue of papers provides empirical evidence couched in theoretical perspectives that addresses most of the questions posed above. Of those not yet answered, promising paradigms for getting those answers are proffered for the new and continuing generations of behavioral scientists who study personality as a life-long process.