Jane Shimon

Red Alert: Gender Equity Issues in Secondary Physical Education

Secondary physical education, more specifically, the learning environment in mixed-gender physical education, is on red alert. Although physical educators face a myriad of problems-such as overcrowded classrooms, poor equipment and facilities, a timecrunched working schedule, and teaching in an unsupported content area-the real issue lies with the educator. How we teach and the equity of our instruction to girls and boys give rise to this alert. We often fail to see how our gender relations in the classroom or our unconscious delivery of inequitable teaching practices affect the learning environment in physical education. As educators, we have a duty to pay closer attention to how we teach all of our students in secondary physical education. Since the inception ofTitle IX in 1972, most secondary-level physical education programs have been required to operate under a coeducational system, requiring girls and boys to learn and participate together. Unfortunately, teaching mixed-gender classes continues to be a challenge for many physical educators (Issues, 1999). In my own teaching and in my work as a teacher educator, I too have, at times, castTitle IX as the enemy of secondary physical education. However, a veteran physical educator once told me that single-gender versus mixedgender class grouping is not the enemy of secondary physical education. As I thought about that comment, I reflected on the times I taught both single-gender and coed classes in physical education. It did not make a difference what type of class I taught; I encountered similar occurrences in both all-girl classes and coed classes. There were students who dressed out, as well as those who did not; there were students who actively participated every day, while others did not; there were highly skilled as well as lessskilled students to instruct; there were those who were model students and those who caused trouble; and there were students who respected the teacher, their peers, and the environment, as well as students who were brash and discourteous. Looking back, those issues existed independent of gender grouping. My mentor indicated that the nature of the problem lies in how teachers teach and the equity of their instruction. No matter how well classes are grouped or curricula are developed, solid, fundamental teaching practice is the foundation of quality instruction for both girls and boys. True equity is achieved by providing quality instruction to all students (Gabbei,2005). Although Title IX is not to blame for the red alert on secondary physical education, there are equity issues found within mixedgender classes that teachers must recognize (McCaughtry, 2004). Extensive research has been conducted or is in progress on the learning environments that exist in coed and single-gender physical education classes. What has the research demonstrated, do we observe any of the findings in our classes, and how can we use these findings to improve our instruction? Research has demonstrated that girls often give the impression that they are participating in a task, but then sit back, inconspicuously hide, or cheer on others during activity (Griffin, 1984)-perhaps because they tend to be overshadowed by boys who are more competitive or athletically gifted (Gabbie & Mitchell, 2001). However, some girls benefit from playing with boys, especially girls who are more athletic, skilled, or competitive. There is also evidence in mixed-gender physical education that boys tend to accumulate more activity time during game play (McCaughtry, 2004) and accrue more total practice trials during lessons (Silverman, 1993). Research has suggested that girls would most likely benefit from further skill practice during a lesson. However, when teaching large coed classes, teachers at the secondary level often spend more time in game play than in appropriately designed skill drills (McKenzie, Prochaska, Sallis, & LaMaster, 2004). Current practice shows that male teachers may use more of a game-like approach to teaching, while female teachers tend to emphasize a progression from simple to complex tasks, and that girls and boys respond most favorably to the learning environment fashioned by same-gender teachers, whether in single or coed settings (Gabbei, 2005). Based on the selected research findings above, it is obvious that there are many issues to consider when teaching mixed-gender classes. Because physical education programs must allow for equal access and opportunity for both sexes underTitle IX, grouping of class members cannot be made based on sex alone. However, teachers may separate girls and boys to provide a more effective learning environment when contact sports are taught (e.g., basketball, lacrosse, or floor hockey). This gender-based separation ensures that girls have

Initial reliability and validity of the lift-and-raise hamstring test.

Shimon, JM, Martinez, R, Darden, GF, and Clouse-Snell, J. Initial reliability and validity of the Lift-and-Raise hamstring test. J Strength Cond Res 24(2): 517-521, 2010-The Lift-and-Raise hamstring flexibility test was developed as a field-based assessment to eliminate the effects of individual and developmental differences in arm, leg, and trunk lengths found with the commonly used Sit-and-Reach tests. This study assessed the initial reliability of the prototype instrument and its validity by comparing obtained values from a Cybex Testing and Rehabilitation System. Flexibility of the left leg was assessed on 53 college-aged participants (women, n = 28; men, n = 25) using the Lift-and-Raise test by 2 independent testers to determine initial reliability measures. The Cybex Testing and Rehabilitation System was compared with the Lift-and-Raise test when assessing the left hamstring of 39 college-aged students (women, n = 23; men, n = 16) to establish initial validity. A high intraclass correlation coefficient emerged between the 2 testers (r = 0.944) on the Lift-and-Raise instrument and between the Lift-and-Raise test and the Cybex testing protocol (r = 0.891). Based on initial results, the Lift-and-Raise test seems to be a reliable and valid test to measure hamstring flexibility.

Developing a Statewide Childhood Body Mass Index Surveillance Program.

BACKGROUND Several states have implemented childhood obesity surveillance programs supported by legislation. Representatives from Idaho wished to develop a model for childhood obesity surveillance without the support of state legislation, and subsequently report predictors of overweight and obesity in the state. METHODS A coalition comprised of the Idaho State Department of Education and 4 universities identified a randomized cluster sample of schools. After obtaining school administrator consent, measurement teams traveled to each school to measure height and weight of students. Sex and race/ethnicity data were also collected. RESULTS The collaboration between the universities resulted in a sample of 6735 students from 48 schools and 36 communities. Overall, 29.2% of the youth in the sample were classified as overweight or obese, ranging from 24.0% for grade 1 to 33.8% for grade 5. The prevalence of overweight and obesity across schools was highly variable (31.2 ± 7.58%). Hierarchical logistic regression indicated that sex, age, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and region were all significant predictors of overweight and obesity, whereas school was not. CONCLUSIONS This coalition enabled the state of Idaho to successfully estimate the prevalence of overweight and obesity on a representative sample of children from all regions of the state, and subsequently identify populations at greatest risk.

Content Literacy in Physical Education: The Use of Word Association Charts

Literacy is an important component in school education, spanning across all curricula. In fact, national educational goals specifically emphasize the importance of developing literacy skills at all grade levels. A basic assumption in education is that every educator is responsible for teaching literacy, whether they are teaching in the classroom or the.,gymnasium. In physical education, the critical question is: Literate about what?

In the Shadow of Obesity: The Female Triad

4 JOPERD • Volume 77 No. 6 • August 2006 The nation’s obesity crisis has been at the forefront of health issues, dominating national media, related research, and preventative agendas including school-lunch and after-school program initiatives. There is, however, another health condition that affl icts girls and women. It exists on the opposite side of the scale from obesity and looms in the shadow of the giant. It is a disorder that must not be minimized in importance, nor dismissed as an elitist concern. This disorder is called the female triad—also known as the female athlete triad—and it involves disordered eating, amenorrhea (absence of menstruation), and osteoporosis (Burney & Brehm, 1998; Yeager, Agonstini, Nattiv, Drinkwater, 1993). Although the female triad is a disorder commonly associated with athletic females, one does not need to be an athlete to suffer from the condition (Golden, 2002; Torstveit & Sundgot-Borgen, 2005). The purpose of this editorial is to stress the importance of this health issue and to call it to the attention of all young females who, in the quest to become a better athlete or achieve a low body weight, could suffer from the female triad. The female triad is caused by an energy defi cit, in which poor eating habits or unhealthy eating practices (disordered eating) make it impossible to meet the caloric needs of strenuous exercise in order to maintain optimal health and performance. Deliberate efforts to control body weight (e.g., purposeful dieting, prolonged fasting, self-induced vomiting, the use of diet pills), or unintentional restriction of energy intake that does not cover the costs of energy expenditure, all have a role in creating low energy stores (Golden, 2002; Manore, 2002). The above are examples of disordered eating, with the clinical disorders of anorexia nervosa and bulimia being extreme conditions. The emphasis that is placed on thinness in many sports (e.g., cheerleading, dance, cross country, gymnastics, track and fi eld) and the constant dieting to maintain this thinness also can lead to disordered eating (Manore, 2002). The constant energy drain on stores of glycogen and body fat due to disordered eating eventually affect menstruation and can be the primary contributor to athletic menstrual dysfunction. Amenorrhea (i.e., one period or fewer per year) is the most severe form of menstrual dysfunction, while other forms of dysfunction associated with exercise include oligomenorrhoea (i.e., six or fewer periods per year), delayed menarche, anovulation (no ovulation, but bleeding may be present), and luteal phase defi ciency, which is characterized by ovulation without bleeding (Manore, 2002). Menstrual dysfunction is a huge concern. Active females who have a prolonged absence of menstruation are at greater risk for low estrogen levels and a reduction of bone mass (i.e., osteopenia), which can lead to an increased incidence of fractures (i.e., stress fractures), skeletal fragility, and vertebral instability (Constantini, 1994). It concerns me when I hear coaches tell their female athletes to lose weight, whether it be to run faster, swim farther, or look better in a leotard. For example, I know a middle school cross-country runner, Kathy (pseudonym), who was told by her coach to slim down in order to improve her competition time. Kathy was serious about her running and would train before going to school, during practice, and in the evenings in order to get better at her sport. In addition to her excessive training regimen, she also limited her caloric intake to reduce weight. By the end of her inconsistent crosscountry season, Kathy (who was 5’5”) weighed only 92 pounds, was amenorrheic, and was fi ghting yet another cold. I am worried about Kathy and girls like her. Not only are they hurting their performance, they are reducing their bone stores, which will ultimately lead to premature osteoporosis. Disordered eating habits also can be attributed to females striving to obtain the perfect body image, whether for a desired sport or for the image a perfect body represents. From a young age, females are exposed to society’s version of the ideal body. The media constantly promotes thinness—as well as muscularity—as beautiful, healthy, and a sign of success (Goodale, Watkins, & Cardinal, 2001). In addition, constant reminders of obesity, and body image messages that come from parents, coaches, and friends add to the increasing pressure on young girls to look a certain way. This can lead to body image dissatisfaction and body distortion. Body image dissatisfaction is a negative feeling that individuals have about their physical appearance, usually pertaining to fatness (Littleton & Ollendick, 2003). Body distortion occurs when individuals (81% of girls and 26% of boys in one study) inaccurately evaluate their body size and shape, often perceiving their bodies to be bigger and fatter than their real size (Skemp-Arlt, 2006). Personally, I have heard girls as young as six years old indicate that they are too fat, and I have talked with junior high school girls who diet unreasonably and work out to lose weight for the same reason. This In the Shadow of Obesity: The Female Triad

Building a Pedagogical Coaching Base: Pursuing Expertise in Teaching Sport

Developing coaching expertise is a lifelong process that enables coaches to grow personally and professionally. One key approach coaches can utilize as part of this journey is to build a sound pedagogical base and implement effective pedagogical skills. In coaching, extensive subject knowledge, coupled with pedagogical experience, provides the coach with a variety of instructional options to select from to help athletes learn, especially when they fail to grasp an explanation, demonstration or concept. The purpose of this article is to provide coaches with the following six strategies to develop a pedagogical coaching base: 1) seek opportunities to learn, 2) establish a teaching style that fits, 3) adapt to the learner, 4) implement teaching cues, 5) maximize participation opportunities, and 6) give effective feedback.

Sibling Influence on Physical Activity and Sport Participation: Considerations for Coaches

Sibling relationships are some of the most influential throughout ones life. While family influences have often been examined in sports settings, less has been studied regarding the specific roles siblings may play. Research suggests that the way athletes view sport participation can be shaped by their experiences and relationships with siblings. Athletes may choose or avoid certain physical activities based on the interests of their siblings, and athletes may define their athletic abilities based on the abilities of their siblings. Moreover, natural rivalry exists between siblings and is especially present when siblings compete against one another in sport contexts. Coaches should be aware of the ways siblings influence one another and utilize strategies that encourage athletes to experience individual success. The purpose of this article is to increase awareness about sibling influences in sport settings and provide practical recommendations for coaches working with athletes who have siblings. The suggested tactics include avoiding direct comparisons, acknowledging biases, utilizing task sheets, and modifying activities to foster individual success. Coaches who encourage individual differences can maximize the positive experiences of siblings in sport and promote continued participation in physical activities.

Stop the Tears of Drug and Alcohol Abuse.

Abstract Objectives: By participating in this Stop the Tears teaching strategy, students will be able to: (1) analyze how alcohol and drug abuse could affect their lives as well as the lives of their friends and family and, (2) create a media message, such as a poster, pamphlet, poem, or song, in which alcohol and drug prevention is advocated specific to how alcohol and drug abuse has affected students in their school. Target Audience: Students in grades 6-12 and lower-division college students.