Janet N. Melby

Linking Economic Hardship to Marital Quality and Instability.

Utilizing a sample of 76 white middle-class couples from a rural midwestern county in the US this study examines 2 central propositions: 1)the negative impact of economic hardship on a spouses marital quality (happiness/satisfaction) or marital instability (thoughts or actions related to divorce) is in part a function of its influence on the effective quality of marital interactions and 2) this process is particularly applicable to the hostile irritable response of men to financial difficulties. A series of analyses supported these propositions. Economic pressures had an indirect association with married couples evaluation of the marriage by promoting hostility in marital interactions and curtailing the warm and supportive behaviors spouses express toward one another. The hypothesized process was most pronounced for husbands whose behavior was more strongly associated with economic problems than wives behavior. Findings from the study are consistent with previous research that identifies negative affect as a principal behavioral correlate of marital distress; however the results also suggest that more research needs to be done on the role of warmth and supportiveness in promoting marital quality. (authors)

Neighborhood context and financial strain as predictors of marital interaction and marital quality in African American couples

Demographic characteristics, family financial strain, neighborhood-level economic disadvantage, and state of residence were tested as predictors of observed warmth, hostility, and self-reported marital quality. Participants were 202 married African American couples who resided in a range of neighborhood contexts. Neighborhood-level economic disadvantage predicted lower warmth during marital interactions, as did residence in the rural south. Consistent with the family stress model (e.g., Conger & Elder, 1994), family financial strain predicted lower perceived marital quality. Unexpectedly, neighborhood-level economic disadvantage predicted higher marital quality. Social comparison processes and degree of exposure to racially based discrimination are considered as explanations for this unexpected result. The importance of context in relationship outcomes is highlighted.

The use of structural equation modeling in assessing the quality of marital observations

The authors examine traditional analytic approaches to assessing the quality of observational measures and suggest a structural equation modeling (SEM) approach that extends the multitrait-multimethod tradition to assess both reliability and validity of observational data. Drawing on observations of hostility and coercion in marital interactions obtained with the Iowa Family Interaction Rating Scales (J. Melby et al., 1990), the authors illustrate the use of SEM as a means to evaluate estimates of psychometric properties of both observational ratings and family member reports within the same analytic framework, thereby providing more comparable assessments across study informants. The results demonstrate the utility of this approach. The use of observational methodology in the social and behavioral sciences has grown considerably during recent years. Indeed, Bennion (1993) noted a 300% growth in the proportion of empirical studies using observational methods published in Developmental Psychology be

Dependability of Measurement in Counseling Psychology An Introduction to Generalizability Theory

Classical approaches to the assessment of reliability neglect to take into account multiple sources of error and to consider diverse measurement contexts. Generalizability theory (GT) offers a flexible framework for assessing dependability of measurement. With GT, investigators can estimate the total proportion of variance in ratings that is due to error rather than focusing on one source of error at a time. Simultaneous consideration of multiple sources of error allows investigators to assess the overall impact of measurement error in terms of attenuation of study findings and reduction of statistical power. Estimation of variance components allows for flexible application of findings to a variety of possible future research designs. Illustrative analyses demonstrate the special advantages of GT for planning studies in which observer ratings will be used.

The Effect of Social Skills, Values, Peers, and Depression on Adolescent Substance Use

The present study tested a social learning model designed to specify the nature of the associations between various constructs shown in previous research to be related to adolescent substance use. The model was tested using a sample of 61 families, each of which included a seventh grader. The results largely supported the hypothesized model. Aggressiveness, low commitment to prosocial values, and problems at school were associated with involvement in a deviant peer group. Low commitment to prosocial values and involvement with deviant peers were related to feelings of depression. Finally, involvement with deviant peers and feelings of depression interacted to increase the probability of substance use, suggesting that depressed adolescents may use substances as a form of self-medication when such behavior is supported by their peer group.

Exploring the impact of skin tone on family dynamics and race-related outcomes.

Racism has historically been a primary source of discrimination against African Americans, but there has been little research on the role that skin tone plays in explaining experiences with racism. Similarly, colorism within African American families and the ways in which skin tone influences family processes is an understudied area of research. Using data from a longitudinal sample of African American families (n = 767), we assessed whether skin tone impacted experiences with discrimination or was related to differences in quality of parenting and racial socialization within families. Findings indicated no link between skin tone and racial discrimination, which suggests that lightness or darkness of skin does not either protect African Americans from or exacerbate the experiences of discrimination. On the other hand, families displayed preferential treatment toward offspring based on skin tone, and these differences varied by gender of child. Specifically, darker skin sons received higher quality parenting and more racial socialization promoting mistrust compared to their counterparts with lighter skin. Lighter skin daughters received higher quality parenting compared with those with darker skin. In addition, gender of child moderated the association between primary caregiver skin tone and racial socialization promoting mistrust. These results suggest that colorism remains a salient issue within African American families. Implications for future research, prevention, and intervention are discussed.

The Relationship Between Body Size and Depressed Mood Findings From a Sample of African American Middle School Girls

The relationship between body weight and depression among adolescent females has been the subject of considerable attention from researchers. The risk of experiencing this distress, however, is not equally distributed across members of all racial groups. African American girls are generally more satisfied with their bodies and thus may be less vulnerable to experiencing depression as a result of weight concerns. Several scholars have suggested that membership in African American culture provides social resources that protect Black females from experiencing high levels of weight-based psychological distress. The authors examine the relationship between body size and depression and the potentially moderating role of African American culture using data from the Family and Community Health Study. Assessing a cohort of 343 African American girls ages 12 to 14, the authors found support for a link between weight and depression. There was no evidence that exposure to African American culture moderated this relationship.

A Generalizability Approach to Assessing the Effects of Ethnicity and Training on Observer Ratings of Family Interactions

This exploratory investigation assessed the utility of generalizability analyses for investigating race of coder and race of family member (‘target’) as contributors to bias in observer ratings of family interaction processes. Thirty behavioral scales were rated on three occasions during an initial 5-week (100-hour) training period. African-American and European-American coders observed videotaped interactions occurring in one African-American and one European-American parent–child dyad. For each scale, levels of rater bias and rater agreement were examined over time. Although most scales showed decreasing levels of bias with training (as expected), some did not. For scales showing a main effect for coder race, European-American coders rated targets more favorably than did African-American coders. For scales susceptible to coder race by target race interactions, coders tended to favor otherrace rather than same-race targets. Suggestions for applying the generalizability approach in future family interaction research are presented.

Linking questionnaire reports and observer ratings of young couples' hostility and support.

Past studies have correlated observer ratings with questionnaire self- and partner-reports of behaviors in close relationships. However, few studies have actually proposed and tested longitudinal models that link observer ratings to past behaviors and to questionnaire self- and partner-reports of behaviors during an observational task. Using data from a panel of 324 young couples, we demonstrate that (a) observer ratings of hostility and support are significantly related to couple reports of the same behavior in the relationship two years earlier, and (b) respondent and partner questionnaire reports of hostility and support during the observational task converge with observer ratings of the same behavior even after controlling for earlier self- and partner-reports. These findings demonstrate that observer reports based on brief discussion tasks reflect the tenor of the relationship over a relatively long period of time. They also demonstrate that couple reports of interactions reflect observable behaviors beyond that attributed to earlier self- and partner-reports. Consistent with previous research, effect sizes are larger for hostility than support but there are few differences between men and women.

Parent behaviors in free‐play and problem‐solving interactions in relation to problem behaviors in preschool boys

A stratified sample of 34 three‐year‐old to five‐year‐old boys and their parents (30 mothers) was observed in their homes during free‐play and problem‐solving interactions. Observer‐ratings of behaviors of parents in each interaction were examined in relation to teachers’ ratings of the boys’ problem behaviors in a childcare setting. Parent behaviors in the play, but not problem‐solving, interaction were significantly related to boys’ problem behaviors. Positive behaviors of the parent in play, such as sensitivity and responsiveness to the child, accounted for nine percent of the variance in boys’ externalizing scores above and beyond the 28% accounted for by the negative parent behaviors of intrusiveness and permissiveness. The addition of positive parent behaviors to the regression model also canceled the statistical significance of the negative behaviors. Negative behaviors appeared to be most influential in that they decreased the likelihood that positive behaviors would be demonstrated within the play interaction.