Janette Webb

Organizations, self-identities and the new economy

The article examines the inter-relations between self-identity and organizational change in advanced capitalist societies characterized by deregulation of markets, privatization and globalizing economic relations. It compares two contrasting perspectives on selfhood: the reflexive self (Giddens, 1991) and the corroded self (Sennett, 1998). Giddens suggests that contemporary organizations, rather than eroding meaning, offer a greater degree of choice about self-identity, and enhance reflexivity and agency. Sennett suggests that new economic forms are corrosive of character and social relations. Using examples from predominantly British data, it is argued that both accounts offer relevant insights into the interplay between selfhood and organizations, but that each overstates their case. Giddens offers a persuasive account of the choice and voluntarism characterizing self-identity for at least a proportion of the population. His account of the ‘project of the self’, however, contributes to an ideology of the flexible, commodified self, and an overly inflated sense of the potential for individualized self-growth. Sennett over-emphasizes the extent of change in organization and employment relations, at least in the British case, but points to the damaging effects of an ideology of individualism, to which Giddens’ model of the self as project potentially contributes. The article argues that short-termism is not the most damaging element of contemporary organization practices. Instead increased instrumentalism on the part of employers results in the experience of increased responsibility without meaningful discretion and authority. The gap between employers’ promises to empower people at work and the experience of greater burdens and uncertain prospects has negative consequences for trust and morale. In conclusion, it is suggested that character is not necessarily undermined by such dynamics: encountering the limits of self-determination, reflexivity and individualism provides the material for critique of new economic forms, as evidenced by public concern with issues of care and mutual dependence.

Climate Change and Society: The Chimera of Behaviour Change Technologies

Our dependence on energy from fossil fuels is causing potentially disastrous global warming and posing fundamental questions about the commensurability of consumer capitalism and a sustainable society. UK and Scottish governments have taken a lead in climate change legislation intended to avoid worst-case scenarios through low carbon transition. There are, however, considerable uncertainties about whether individualized, market-driven, materialistic societies can manage such radical transformations. Policies to cut household emissions focus on behaviour change through social marketing and incremental modifications to consumption. This technocratic model produces very little societal change, and seems likely to be self-defeating. The framing of the problem as one of behavioural adjustments to individual self-interest obscures alternative understandings of society as a collective accomplishment. Through simultaneous ‘knowing and not knowing’ about unsustainable consumerism, a behavioural model allows governing to proceed, while marginalizing awkward questions about the contradictions between economic growth and low carbon transitions.

Vocabularies of Motive and the `New' Management

The paper examines the significance of Total Quality Management (TQM) as a new vocabulary of motive (Wright Mills 1940) for management. The relationship between such a vocabulary and substantive changes in workplace relations is examined by means of case study analysis of three firms: a disk drive manufacturer, a computer systems manufacturer and a drinks manufacturer. TQM was presented as a device for tackling the perceived dysfunctions of bureaucracy, and new forms of open management, teamwork, continuous improvement and partnership between customers and suppliers were espoused in each case. The specific application of TQM varied however and those changes introduced did not replace bureaucratic principles of standardisation, differentiation and control through a single chain of command. Nor was the historical tension between the technical/co-ordinating functions of management and the role of management in controlling and motivating labour overcome. TQM was used by senior management as a means of restructuring management roles, justifying increased corporate control and intensifying work. Overall it appeared to reinforce instrumental rationality and seems unlikely to contribute to authentic empowerment at work.

THE MISMANAGEMENT OF INNOVATION

The paper argues the need for a sociology of management which relates the micro-sociology of management activities to the economic performance of the firm and to debates about power relations and the distribution of wealth. The substance of the paper is a study of a medium-sized British company in the computer components industry. The research focuses on the relationships between development engineers and managers, and analyses the structural reasons for the failure to innovate. In particular it shows that management, in attempting to pursue an instrumental rationality, undermined the achievement of their own objectives. The contradiction between the logic of short-term instrumental controls and the espoused organic, human resources model of management produced a damaging pattern of workplace relations characterised by distrust and defensiveness. The result was a motivational crisis over the management of innovation, which contributed to the eventual failure of the business.

Influencing household energy practices: a critical review of UK smart metering standards and commercial feedback devices

The smart metering systems currently being installed in UK households support devices that give feedback aimed at encouraging behaviour changes, specifically to reduce energy demand and spending on energy. Detailed standards specify the minimum technical capabilities of the smart meters and feedback devices. In this paper, we assess the extent to which these standards enable feedback that is likely to be effective in reducing demand. Latest research in this field, drawing on theories of social practice, suggests that feedback devices assume and rely on what we term ‘reflection practice’, a distinctive type of social practice, and that feedback attentive to the particular energy-using practices of householders is likely to have most influence on demand. Neither the smart meter standards nor current commercial devices are found to incorporate these latest research findings, potentially significantly limiting the ability of the UK smart metering programme to fulfil its domestic energy demand reduction objectives.

Making climate change governable: the case of the UK climate change risk assessment and adaptation planning

Risk assessment techniques are regarded as key devices for managing adaptation to climate change; this paper examines their use in the first UK Climate Change Risk Assessment. The conceptual framework is derived from the sociology of knowledge, which treats policy makers as co-producers of knowledge, in interaction with scientists and consultants. The paper considers the framing of the problem, the creation of metrics and their limits, and the validity and legitimacy of such tools in conditions of high uncertainty. While recognising the potential contribution of risk assessment to managing complexity and assessing priorities, it argues that over-reliance on such instruments may risk understating the potential for climate-related disasters, while unintentionally increasing the real risk of failure to act effectively to adapt to inevitable change. Reliance on socio-technical devices entails a top-down approach to policy, which limits engagement with the public in deliberation about social priorities and purposes. Consequently politicians and civil servants may focus on the ‘wrong’ variables, misunderstand the assumptions and values built in to risk assessments, misuse their outputs, and possibly fail to act on the precautionary principle. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.

Gender, Work and Transitions in the Local State

The paper describes the current employment patterns of men and women in local government in Scotland, Wales and England, and examines the gender relations of work during a period of restructuring which is challenging the professionalised welfare bureaucracy and replacing it with a managerialised state informed by market principles. Men are declining as a percentage of employees, alongside decreasing numbers of full-time jobs and increasing part-time and temporary contracts, suggesting some decrease in the relative desirability of public service employment. Nevertheless the challenges to traditional conceptions of paternalistic, bureaucratic welfare have facilitated womens increasing access to professional and managerial grades, but men have continued to dominate most positions of power and authority. The continuing gender divisions of labour, and womens perceptions of a sharper axis of gender conflict surrounding the period of reorganisation into single tier authorities in Scotland and Wales, suggest that it is not simply a matter of time until a rational, functional state eradicates remaining inequalities between the sexes. Neither however can a radical feminist perspective, which treats the state as bound to reproduce womens subordination, account for the degree of progressive change. Instead it is argued that there is genuine indeterminacy in the restructuring process, which, given womens representation and participation, seems likely to disrupt further the legacy of patriarchal relations informing the trajectory of state bureaucracies.

Seduced or Sceptical Consumers? Organised Action and the Case of Fair Trade Coffee

This article brings together research on political consumerism, social movements and markets to analyse the phenomenon of fair trade coffee. It does this to demonstrate the influence of organised consumers in shaping markets, and to show that people are not inevitably individualised and seduced by the power of corporate marketing. The case of fair trade coffee is used because of the pivotal role of coffee in the global economy. ‘Organised consumers’ are treated as comprised of three inter-connecting, fluid, components: an activist core, responsible for building the campaign and its alternative trade networks; a widely dispersed alliance of civil society and social movement organisations, articulating the connections between trade justice, human rights and wellbeing; and an ‘outer edge’ of quasi-organised consumers acting as part of a largely imagined group by using economic capital to express cultural and political values. Despite saturated markets, and oligopoly among suppliers in a highly rationalised supply chain, such consumer movements have been instrumental in an emerging new trade paradigm, which has influenced the business and product strategies of trans-national corporations. The creation, and rising sales, of Fair Trade products are evidence of the role of consumers as sceptical actors, challenging consumerism and the ethics of a supply chain which impoverishes coffee farmers. Although the future trajectories of fair trade campaigns and products are uncertain, their growth indicates that people continue to draw on sources of social identity beyond that of ‘consumer’.

District energy development in liberalised markets: situating UK heat network development in comparison with Dutch and Norwegian case studies

Many national energy policies envisage residual and renewable heat sources with district heating (DH) as a component of sustainable energy systems. There is however limited empirical evidence about facilitation of development in the context of liberalised markets and diminished local government control over direct service provision. Recent attempts to stimulate DH have had variable outcomes in different countries. Using five case studies, we ask why heat network development in the UK takes a relatively piecemeal and fragmented form in comparison with the Netherlands and Norway, countries whose heating sectors are comparable with the UK and where DH provision is limited. We argue that energy market liberalisation has been enacted differentially, resulting in different political and economic governance structures: in comparison with the UK liberal market economy, the more coordinated market economies of the Netherlands and Norway retain greater capacity for collaboration between energy utilities, localities and states, resulting in stronger foundations for district energy. Implications for UK governance are considered.

Multi-level governance: opportunities and barriers in moving to a low-carbon Scotland

ABSTRACT: In view of the challenge posed by climate change and the need to reduce depen-dence on fossil fuels, The Royal Society of Edinburgh Inquiry (2011) examined the barriers makingit difficult for Scotland to change to a low-carbon society. The single most important finding is that,whilst widely desired, change is held back by the lack of coherence and integration of policy atdifferent levels of governance. There is activity at the level of the EU, UK Government, ScottishGovernment, local authorities, local communities, households and civil society, but there is often adisconnection between policies at different levels. This impedes progress and also leads to mistrustamong the general public. This paper brings together the background to ten primary recommenda-tions featured in the Inquiry addressing the principal barriers. Above all, it is important to integratethe activities within city regions and to exploit opportunities in local communities. Reflecting on theInquiry findings, we stress the economic, social and environmental opportunities to be gained froma low-carbon society and outline the step changes that need to take place within governance, cityregions and local authorities and civil society.KEY WORDS: city regions, civil society, climate change, local authoritiesThe main conclusion from collecting evidence between Septem-ber 2009 and March 2011 was that there is a common desireat all levels of society for a change to a more sustainable life-style. Indeed, there is a positive vision of what Scotland couldachieve in a low-carbon future. But this enthusiasm is temperedwith puzzlement, or even frustration, that it is proving so diffi-cult to implement change. There is an abundance of discussionleading to policy recommendations that affect activities at thelevel of the EU, the UK Government, Scottish Government,Local Authorities, local communities, families and individuals.However, the integration of implementation strategies at alllevels from national to local is missing. The Inquiry team foundthat there is sometimes a clear disconnect between parallelpolicies in different spheres of interest and also between differ-ent levels of governance. Other problems arise when seeminglyprogressive low-carbon/equality policies interact in an unanti-cipated way with other existing or new policies.This paper explores the issues at a regional level. It bringstogether the findings from other papers in this Special Issueof EESTRSE and identifies the principal barriers that areholding Scotland back. The Inquiry Report (Royal Society ofEdinburgh (RSE) 2011) outlines the key recommendations(Table 1) and the purpose of this paper is to cover the back-ground to, and rationale for, action. We structure our analysisaround different levels of governance, further subdividingissues according to different groups of actors at each level.The purpose is to offer a coherent overview of actions neededfrom international/national to local level. Our hope is thattackling necessary change at all levels will add coherence andmomentum to the drive to a low-carbon society. Such coherencewill provide the joined-up approach necessary to garner thesupport and trust of the public.To what extent can Scotland, with its own Parliament anddemocratic traditions of governance, shape the unfolding ofevents associated with a changing climate? On the one hand,Scotland is an affluent country, with abundant natural resourcesand a history of innovation, enterprise and knowledge creationwhich shaped the Industrial Revolution. On the other hand, ithas a small population, a legacy of poverty and inequality, andfaces uncertainties (along with most of Europe) about its futureeconomic capacities and prospects. The Scottish Parliamentand Government are part of the system of devolved UK govern-ment, and the UK is in turn a member state of the EuropeanUnion. This means that Scotland’s opportunities to face climatechange constructively are made in the circumstances of multiplelevels of governance, which constrain policy and fiscal powers.The Parliament has legislative responsibility for significant policyareas on land use and forestry, environmental protection, waste