Janine Oldham

Immunoregulatory mechanisms triggered by viral infections protect from type 1 diabetes in mice

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease that is caused by the destruction of insulin-producing beta cells. Viral infections induce immune responses that can damage beta cells and promote T1D or on the other hand prevent the development of the disease. However, the opposing roles of viral infections in T1D are not understood mechanistically. We report here that viruses that do not inflict damage on beta cells provided protection from T1D by triggering immunoregulatory mechanisms. Infection of prediabetic NOD mice with Coxsackie virus B3 or lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) delayed diabetes onset and reduced disease incidence. Delayed T1D onset was due to transient upregulation of programmed cell death-1 ligand 1 (PD-L1) on lymphoid cells, which prevented the expansion of diabetogenic CD8+ T cells expressing programmed cell death-1 (PD-1). Reduced T1D incidence was caused by increased numbers of invigorated CD4+CD25+ Tregs, which produced TGF-beta and maintained long-term tolerance. Full protection from T1D resulted from synergy between PD-L1 and CD4+CD25+ Tregs. Our results provide what we believe to be novel mechanistic insight into the role of viruses in T1D and should be valuable for prospective studies in humans.

Transforming Growth Factor-β Suppresses the Activation of CD8+ T-Cells When Naïve but Promotes Their Survival and Function Once Antigen Experienced : A Two-Faced Impact on Autoimmunity

OBJECTIVE—Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) can exhibit strong immune suppression but has also been shown to promote T-cell growth. We investigated the differential effect of this cytokine on CD8+ T-cells in autoimmunity and antiviral immunity. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS—We used mouse models for virally induced type 1 diabetes in conjunction with transgenic systems enabling manipulation of TGF-β expression or signaling in vivo. RESULTS—Surprisingly, when expressed selectively in the pancreas, TGF-β reduced apoptosis of differentiated autoreactive CD8+ T-cells, favoring their expansion and infiltration of the islets. These results pointed to drastically opposite roles of TGF-β on naïve compared with antigen-experienced/memory CD8+ T-cells. Indeed, in the absence of functional TGF-β signaling in T-cells, fast-onset type 1 diabetes caused by activation of naïve CD8+ T-cells occurred faster, whereas slow-onset disease depending on accumulation and activation of antigen-experienced/memory CD8+ T-cells was decreased. TGF-β receptor–deficient CD8+ T-cells showed enhanced activation and expansion after lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection in vivo but were more prone to apoptosis once antigen experienced and failed to survive as functional memory cells. In vitro, TGF-β suppressed naïve CD8+ T-cell activation and γ-interferon production, whereas memory CD8+ T-cells stimulated in the presence of TGF-β showed enhanced survival and increased production of interleukin-17 in conjunction with γ-interferon. CONCLUSIONS—The effect of TGF-β on CD8+ T-cells is dependent on their differentiation status and activation history. These results highlight a novel aspect of the pleiotropic nature of TGF-β and have implications for the design of immune therapies involving this cytokine.

TLR2 signaling improves immunoregulation to prevent type 1 diabetes

Signaling through TLR2 promotes inflammation and modulates CD4+CD25+ Tregs. We assessed mechanistically how this molecule would alter immunoregulation in type 1 diabetes (T1D). We also asked whether TLR2 may be involved in our recent discovery that viral infection can protect from autoimmune diabetes by expanding and invigorating Tregs. Treatment of prediabetic mice with a synthetic TLR2 agonist diminished T1D and increased the number and function of CD4+CD25+ Tregs, also conferring DCs with tolerogenic properties. TLR2 ligation also promoted the expansion of Tregs upon culture with DCs and ameliorated their capacity to prevent the disease. Protection from T1D by lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) infection depended on TLR2. LCMV increased the frequency of CD4+CD25+ Tregs and their production of TGF‐β more significantly in WT than TLR2‐deficient mice. Furthermore, LCMV infection in vivo or LCMV‐infected DCs in vitro rendered, via TLR2, CD4+CD25+ Tregs capable of diminishing T1D. We identify novel mechanisms by which TLR2 promotes immunoregulation and controls autoimmune diabetes in naïve or infected hosts. This work should help understand T1D etiology and develop novel immune‐based therapeutic interventions.

Essential Role for TLR9 in Prime but Not Prime-Boost Plasmid DNA Vaccination To Activate Dendritic Cells and Protect from Lethal Viral Infection

One of the requirements for efficient vaccination against infection is to achieve the best combination of an adequate adjuvant with the antigenic information to deliver. Although plasmid DNA is a promising tool bearing the unique potential to activate humoral and cellular immunity, an actual challenge is to increase plasmid immunogenicity in human vaccination protocols in which efficacy has proven rather limited. Previous work showed that the bacterial DNA backbone of the plasmid has potent adjuvant properties because it contains CpG motifs that are particular activating nucleotidic sequences. Among TLRs, which are key sensors of microbial products, TLR9 can detect CpG motifs and confer activation of APCs, such as dendritic cells. However, whether the immunogenic properties of plasmid DNA involve TLR9 signaling has not been clearly established. In the current study, we demonstrate that TLR9 determines the effectiveness of vaccination against lethal lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection using plasmid DNA in a prime, but not prime-boost, vaccination regimen. Furthermore, we provide evidence that the presence of TLR9 in dendritic cells is necessary for effective and functional priming of virus-specific CD8+ T cells upon plasmid exposure in vitro or single-dose vaccination in vivo. Therefore, at single or low vaccine doses that are often used in human-vaccination protocols, CpG/TLR9 interactions participate in the immunogenicity of plasmid DNA. These results suggest that the TLR9 signaling pathway is involved in the efficacy of plasmid vaccination; therefore, it should remain a focus in the development or amelioration of vaccines to treat infections in humans.

TGF-β suppresses the activation of CD8+ T cells when naïve but promotes their survival and function once antigen-experienced: a two-faced impact on autoimmunity

OBJECTIVE—Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) can exhibit strong immune suppression but has also been shown to promote T-cell growth. We investigated the differential effect of this cytokine on CD8+ T-cells in autoimmunity and antiviral immunity. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS—We used mouse models for virally induced type 1 diabetes in conjunction with transgenic systems enabling manipulation of TGF-β expression or signaling in vivo. RESULTS—Surprisingly, when expressed selectively in the pancreas, TGF-β reduced apoptosis of differentiated autoreactive CD8+ T-cells, favoring their expansion and infiltration of the islets. These results pointed to drastically opposite roles of TGF-β on naïve compared with antigen-experienced/memory CD8+ T-cells. Indeed, in the absence of functional TGF-β signaling in T-cells, fast-onset type 1 diabetes caused by activation of naïve CD8+ T-cells occurred faster, whereas slow-onset disease depending on accumulation and activation of antigen-experienced/memory CD8+ T-cells was decreased. TGF-β receptor–deficient CD8+ T-cells showed enhanced activation and expansion after lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection in vivo but were more prone to apoptosis once antigen experienced and failed to survive as functional memory cells. In vitro, TGF-β suppressed naïve CD8+ T-cell activation and γ-interferon production, whereas memory CD8+ T-cells stimulated in the presence of TGF-β showed enhanced survival and increased production of interleukin-17 in conjunction with γ-interferon. CONCLUSIONS—The effect of TGF-β on CD8+ T-cells is dependent on their differentiation status and activation history. These results highlight a novel aspect of the pleiotropic nature of TGF-β and have implications for the design of immune therapies involving this cytokine.

Expression level of a pancreatic neo-antigen in beta cells determines degree of diabetes pathogenesis

It is not fully understood how the expression level of autoantigens in beta cells impacts autoimmune diabetes (T1D) development. Earlier studies using ovalbumin and also insulin had shown that secreted antigens could enhance diabetes development through facilitated presentation by antigen presenting cells. Here we sought to determine how the expression level of a membrane bound, non-secreted or cross-presented neo-antigen, the glycoprotein (GP) of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), would influence T1D. We found that an RIP-LCMV transgenic mouse line exhibiting higher levels of beta cell GP expression developed more severe diabetes after LCMV infection or transfer of high numbers of activated autoreactive T cells. Importantly, all beta cells were lost and a significant increase in morbidity and mortality from T1D was noted. Insulitis and accumulation of autoaggressive CD8 cells was more profound in the RIP-LCMV-GP high-expressor line. Interestingly, the additional introduction of neo-antigen-specific CD4(+) helper or regulatory T cells was able to influence diabetogenesis positively or negatively. We conclude that a higher degree of autoantigen expression results in increased diabetes susceptibility. Therefore, autoantigens such as insulin that are expressed at higher levels in beta cells might have a more profound impact on diabetes pathogenesis.